Gold was in great demand in the Maghrib and in Europe to lubricate a monetary system. Salt was needed in the Sudan, where the body loses much salt through perspiration. So, the precious yellow metal was exchanged in the trans-Saharan trade for the indispensable salt. It was because of their great need for salt that the people of the goldfields reluctantly came out to trade with foreigners. Ca da Mosto says that the people of Mali consumed much salt lest their blood would dry up.1 According to Fernandes the owners of the gold put salt on their thick lips, 'lest these would dry up and fall down'. He adds that the Sudanese heal many internal diseases with salt.2 Leo Africanus reported that whenever people of the Sudan ate bread, they used to lick a piece of salt.3 So highly was salt valued that people far inland in the Sudan, close to the goldfields, bought it for an equivalent weight of gold.4
Maritime salt from the Atlantic coast was carried into the interior in some places,5 but was unsuitable for distribution over vast and remote areas in the hot and humid climate of the Sudan. On the other hand, salt bars extracted from mines in the Sahara were dry and solid enough to be carried undamaged over long distances. There were several deposits of salt in the Sahara, which became principal sources for the salt trade in different periods.
Nearest to Bilad al-Sudan were the salt mines of Awlil mentioned by al-Bakri (in the country of the Juddala) and by al-Idrisi (on an island near the coast). 6 These were the salines of Trarza in southern Mauritania, not far from the Senegal river. The salt of Awlil was taken either by caravans overland, or by boats upstream to Takrur, to Silla, and as far as the goldfields of Bambuk. In Bambuk this salt had to compete with the salt bars of the Sahara, which were of better quality, because they were thicker and more solid.
Taghaza, about half way between Sijilmasa and the Sahel, was the principal salt mine between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries. al-Bakri described the mine of Tatental (probably Taghaza), twenty days travel from Sijilmasa, where salt was dug about two fathoms under the ground and cut like stones. In this mine the fort and houses were built of salt stones. Salt buildings in Taghaza were reported also by Ibn Sa'id, al-Qazwini, Ibn Battuta (who visited Taghaza) and by V. Fernandes. The labourers in the mine were slaves of the Massufa. No food was produced in Taghaza, and the people there lived on dates brought from Sijilmasa and Dar'a, on millet imported from the Sudan and on camels' meat. It was a miserable and unhealthy place, yet 'in spite of its wretchedness, transactions in tremendous sums of gold took place in the village of Taghaza'.7
As a result of intensive exploitation the mines of Taghaza were gradually exhausted and impoverished. Raymond Mauny points to the decline in quality of the salt by reviewing information of different periods. Whereas Ibn Battuta reported that two salt bars made a camel's load, Leo Africanus -who visited the mine about a century and a half later- found that a camel carried four salt bars. In other words, between the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries the size and weight of a salt bar were reduced by half. This is confirmed by Fernandes, a contemporary of Leo, who says that it was very difficult to load up the salt bars of Taghaza because these were too thin, and tended to crumble.8 Fernandes recorded also that Taghaza had been deserted some time before because its water pits dried up. This, however, was for a short time only. In 1582 the Tuaregs, allies of the Songhay, evacuated Taghaza and opened the new salt mines of Taodeni, following the Moroccan conquest of Taghaza.9 They left behind exhausted mines.
As the productivity of Taghaza declined, the salt mine of Idjil, between Rio de Oro and Fort Gouraud, gained importance. Its name- Ygild- was first mentioned by V. Fernandes. It is likely, however, that about half a century earlier Ca da Mosto had referred to the same mine- six days travel north of Wadan - though he still called it Taghaza.10
V. Fernandes described the pattern of the salt trade of Idjil. Traders from Wadan, which flourished on this trade, bought a camel load of salt at Idjil for one and a half mithqals. In Wadan itself the price reached two or three mithqals. From Wadan the salt was taken to Tichitt, where it fetched up to seven mithqals for a camel's load. The merchants of Walata came to buy the salt at Tichitt and sent it to Timbuktu, where a camel load was sold for a hundred or a hundred and twenty mithqals.11
A seventy-fold increase in the price of a camel load between Idjil and Timbuktu, a distance of about 875 miles, may be somewhat exaggerated. Ibn Battuta says that a camel's load of salt from Taghaza was sold for eight to ten mithqals at Walata, and for twenty to thirty, and sometimes even forty, mithqals at the capital of Mali.12 Whatever the exact prices of the salt at each market town on the trade routes, it is certain that for such a bulky commodity the cost of transportation was much higher than the basic cost of the salt. Gold, on the other hand, was easier to carry. This is why it is reported that of the four hundred camels charged with salt on the way south, only twenty-five came back north with gold. The other camels were sold in the Sahel.13
From Timbuktu the salt was sent by canoe up the Niger river to Jenne.14 Part of the salt reached Mali on camels over the Sahel.15 At Jenne or at Niani, the capital of Mali, the salt bars were broken in to smaller pieces to be carried to the goldfields on porters' heads, at the service of the Wangara traders. The same traders and porters carried the gold northwards.
Gold was found as powder or in nuggets. It was used in the courts of the kings of Ghana and Mali to decorate state emblems.16 Undoubtedly there were goldsmiths in the towns of the Sahel, who introduced this art from the Maghrib. Early in the sixteenth century V. Fernandes mentioned Jewish goldsmiths at Walata.17 Current traditions in Mauritania attribute Jewish origin to Moorish goldsmiths, and it is possible that these were descendants of Jews who had come down from southern Morocco, perhaps from Wadi Dar'a.18
Part of the gold was worked in the towns of the Sahel. al-Bakri noted that the gold of Awdaghust- considered the best in the world - was exported as twisted threads. The dinars struck in Tadmekka were called 'balds', because they carried no inscriptions.19 Proper gold coins, dinars, were struck north of the desert only. In the tenth century al-Mas'udi reported that the gold bartered in the Sudan was coined into gold dinars in Sijilmasa.20 Two centuries later, al-Idrisi said that the gold of W angara was bought by traders of Wargala and the Western Maghrib. They carried it to their own countries, where dinars were minted.21
Kanem in the Central Sudan had no gold to offer, and its trade was mainly in slaves. Zawila, on the route from Kanem to Tripoli, became the most famous centre for the slave trade in the Sahara.22 In the Western Sudan, where gold dominated the market, slave trading was on a more limited scale. This difference in the role of gold and slaves between the Western and the Central Sudan respectively, had far-reaching historical consequences.
For the gold trade it was vital that peace and security should prevail over all the country between the gold sources and the market towns of the Sahel. This trade encouraged the formation of states, their integration in large-scale empires, and the spread of Islam far inland to the south. An intensive slave trade, on the other hand, was based on continuous raids, which bred terror and hostile relations between the raiding kingdoms in the north and the invaded countries to the south, the sports ground for slave raiders. This may be one of the reasons why Kanem and Bornu had throughout their history antagonized 'savage' tribes on their southern frontiers; why a series of 'neo-Sudanic' states did not develop in the immediate hinterland of Bornu, which remained pagan until the nineteenth century.
Though of lesser importance than in the Central Sudan, and second to the gold trade, slave trading in the Western Sudan did exist. Slaves were important in different stages of the trans-Saharan trade. They worked in the salt mines of Taghaza and in the copper mines of Takedda. They were porters in the service of the Wangara traders in the southern section of the trading system, where beasts of burden were of little use. 23 At the end of the fifteenth century the Mandinga (Dyula) traders bought slaves in Elmina, whom the Portuguese had shipped from Benin. These slaves were needed as porters to carry gold and other commodities.24 Slaves also constituted a source of wealth for the royalty and the nobility.
War captives were made slaves and sold to traders.25 But there were also organized raids to obtain slaves. Armed bands from Silla, Takrur, and Ghana raided the country of the Lamlam for slaves, as did the people of the trading towns of Barisa and Ghiyaru. These slaves were sold to merchants from the Maghrib.26 Lamlam is the name given to the stateless peoples, who lived outside the orbit of the Sudanic kingdoms and were fair game for the latter. Portuguese sources reported that chiefs used to capture their own subjects to be sold as slaves to the Europeans.27 This is by no means typical of Sudanic rulers. It may have been the immediate result of the new demand for slaves near the coast following the arrival of the Portuguese. In some societies people were sold into slavery for serious crimes, such as theft or adultery.28
No contemporary account exists of the way slaves were carried across the Sahara to the Maghrib. It was not, perhaps, so different from what Caillié described in the 1820s. He travelled in a caravan of 1400 camels. Slaves were put on camels which carried loads of lesser weight such as ostrich feathers and cloth; others went on foot. They were given very little water and suffered more than others from the heat. Some of the Moors in Caillié's caravan treated the slaves very harshly. 29
Ibn Battuta joined a caravan from Takedda to Sijilmasa which carried six hundred slaves, very probably from Bornu.30 Just as Morocco obtained slaves from Bornu in the Central Sudan, so Tripoli traded in slaves with Gao in the Western Sudan. Leo Africanus recorded that the merchants of Mesrata (east of Tripoli) traded in European goods, bought from the Venetians, for Sudanese slaves.31 That these slaves could have come from the Western Sudan is suggested by the presence of 'Abd al-Wasi' al-Masrati (from Mesrata) at the court of Askiya Dawud in Gao, where he proposed to buy five hundred slaves.32
The trade was indeed very complex; in 1446 João Fernandes reported that the Arabs and the Azenègues (Sanhaja) of the Western Sahara captured Negroes, and sold them to the Moors or took them themselves as far as Barca in the kingdom of Tunisia.33 A decade later Ca da Mosto found that slave caravans conducted by the Arabs were divided at Wadan; one part was taken to Barca and then to Sicily, one part to Tunisia, another to the coast of Barbary, and a fourth to the Portuguese in Arguin.34
In southern Morocco and the oases of the northern Sahara, mainly in trading centres such as Tagaoust, Dar'a or Wargala, Leo Africanus noted a great number of black people and mulattos born of Sudanese slave women.35 In Morocco Sudanese slaves were owned by commoners, and in Fes it was a custo1n to add a slave girl to the gift given to a fiancee.36
More important were the Sudanese slaves in the service of the rulers of the Maghrib. They formed the bodyguard of the Zirid rulers of Ifriqiya.37 When Ibn Tashfin sought to strengthen his position vis-a-vis Abu Bakr ibn'Umar, and was preparing for future military exploits, he bought two thousand Sudanese slaves to serve in his army.38 Most of the servants of the royal household in Fes were Sudanese slaves, and Sudanese eunuchs guarded the royal harem.39
From Morocco Sudanese slaves were sent across the straits to Andalusia. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries Sudanese slaves were recorded in Cordova and Algeciras. In the fourteenth century they appeared in the Christian states of Catalan, Valencia, Majorca, in Marseille and Montpellier. Yet at these northern latitudes they were never found in great numbers. Towards the end of the fourteenth, and during the fifteenth, centuries Sudanese slaves appear in European documentation.
In Naples they amounted to 83 per cent of the servile population. In Sicily they were employed in agriculture. Genoa and Venice also had black slaves at that period, which Malowist associated with the scarcity of labour in Europe. Significantly, most of the Sudanese slaves in Southern Europe were attested to have come from 'the Mountains of Barca', or Cyrenaica.40 This fits very well with the information of João Fernandes and Ca da Mosto from the 1400s to the 1450s, that some of the slaves of the Western Sudan were taken to 'Monde Barque', or the Mountains of Barca. At that time, however, Europeans became involved directly in the slave trade along the Atlantic coast.
When the Portuguese reached the Saharan coast they used to make forays from their ships to kidnap Moors, whom they brought to Portugal. Later, captured Moors were exchanged for black slaves brought by the Moors from the Sudan. South of the mouth of the Senegal river a more regular trade developed with the African rulers. The Portuguese were more successful in obtaining slaves than gold. They paid for the little gold and the 1nany slaves in cloth and in other manufactured textiles, in beads, in tin or in silver, but most important of all, in horses. Horses were in great demand among the African chiefs, who were ready to pay for these in slaves.41
Horses were wanted by chiefs for military purposes and for prestige. The thousand horses in the stables of the Kaya-Magha (of Wagadu) were individually looked after. The Diawara rulers of Kingui created a formidable force of cavalry.42 The king of Ghana had small horses which were of local breeding.43 In Timbuktu, according to Leo Africanus, short horses only were bred, and these were used by the merchants and courtiers. The better horses came from the Maghrib and were first offered to the ruler. The price of horses in Timbuktu was four or five times the price in Europe.44 Ibn Battuta found that horses in Mali were more expensive than camels.45 The king of Mali is said to have had about ten thousand cavalry mounts. He also had to provide horses for his army captains and paid considerable sums for Arab horses brought by merchants from beyond the desert.46 The artisans of Beni Goumi in the northern Sahara used to invest their earnings in horses they bought in Fes, and later sold them to merchants going down to the Sudan.47
When the Portuguese reached the Atlantic coast, they responded to the demand for horses by the African chiefs of Djolof, Sine-Salum and the Malinke. Fernandes was told that the Djolof chiefs bought horses mainly for prestige, and did not even mind buying sick horses.48 Nevertheless, cavalry was the striking force in the Sudan and afforded military superiority over an army of bowmen. A better supply of horses in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries may have strengthened the power of chiefs closer to the coast, who posed a serious challenge to the military superiority of Mali.
The close connection between slaves and horses is shown by the fact that in Ifriqiya the nakhkhas traded in both: he transported horses on the way south and slaves on the way back north.49 The king of Bornu raided his neighbours to the south and captured slaves. These slaves were exchanged for horses brought by merchants from the Maghrib. With these horses his army became stronger, his raids more effective and the number of captured slaves increased.50 One may draw parallels between the trade in horses in the Sudan and the trade in fire-arms in the Gulf of Guinea; horses, like fire-arms, were paid for in slaves, and both contributed to the intensity of slave raiding.
Salt, gold, and slaves were among the earliest staples of the trans-Saharan trade. It was through exchanging these basic commodities that the trade system became more complex. New items of more luxurious character were introduced as a result of the cultural contacts which followed trading relations. The rural people in the Sudan, according to Ibn Sa'id, used to go naked, but the Muslims covered their privy parts. Most of them wore skins, but those who mixed with the white men [i.e., the foreign traders] put on imported clothes of cotton and wool.51 This suggests that clothing was introduced and diffused through trade and Islam.
In the tenth century Ibn al-Faqih noted that the Sudanese people of Ghana wore skins. 52 A century lateral-Bakri described the commoners in Ghana wearing robes of cotton, silk, or brocade. Only the king and the crown prince had the right to wear sewn clothes according to the Muslims' fashion. Away from the capital, in the province of Sarna, the people went naked, and women only covered their sexual parts with skins.53
The people of Malal, in the country of the Lamlam, were naked according to al-Idrisi.54 When the king of Malal was converted to Islam he was given a cotton dress. 55 Islam helped in creating a market for clothes and encouraged the increase of imports as well as the expansion of local manufacturing.
It is significant that the cotton tree and the manufacture of cloth were first reported from Takrur, the earliest Muslim state. 56 The cloth industry in the Western Sudan, which started in the eleventh century, reached its highest point of prosperity in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Production was for the local Sudanese market and for export to the Sahara and the Maghrib. 57 The more important centres of trade and Islam, Timbuktu and Jenne, were also famous as centres of weaving. In the seventeenth century there were twenty-six workshops of tailors in Timbuktu, each with fifty to a hundred apprentices.58
The development of a local textile industry did not reduce the volume of cloth imports. These were mainly luxurious clothes such as the Egyptian dress of the wealthy people in Walata and the European imported clothes of the king of Mali.59 Silk products were exported to the Sudan from Tunisia and Granada. 60 About 1470 Bendetto Dei reported an active trade of European cloth in Timbuktu. 61 Leo African us met the same in Gao.62
These European products reached the entrepots of the Sahel across the desert. By that time the Portuguese on the Atlantic coast had begun to trade in cloth, responding to a great demand by the local traders. 63 On the Casamance, where the people wove fine cloth, the Portuguese exchanged their cloth for the local woven cloth. 64 In Elmina the Portuguese met with a demand for Moroccan cloth, as the people there developed a taste for this cloth, which had reached them for some time through the Dyula commercial network. The cloth was, however, very expensive because of high transport oosts incurred in the long overland route and because it changed hands many times. The Portuguese bought the cloth in Morocco, and by taking it directly by sea, sold it on the African coast at lower prices.65
Copper, used mainly for ornaments, is often mentioned among the imports. It came from southern Morocco, 66 and later also from the Byzantine empire.67 The twelfth-century 'lost caravan' discovered by Monod in the Sahara carried some two thousand rods of copper at the total weight of about a ton.68 Some silver, tin, and lead also reached the Western Sudan as well as perfumes, bracelets, arms, and books. Beads of stone, coral, and glass were in demand both for ornaments and as currency. Musk extracted from the civet cat, spices, ambergris, ostrich feathers, hides, and kola nuts were among the exports. While grains, sorghum, and millet were exported from the Sudan to the Sahara for the consumption of the Sudanese, the Arab and Berber communities in the Sahel imported wheat from North Africa. They also imported sugar, raisins, and dried dates and figs.69
Three arboreal products were important in the trade of the Western Sudan: the gum tree of the Sahel, the shea butter of the savannah and the kola of the forest. The gum tree was observed near Avidaghust in the eleventh century and its products were exported to Andalusia. 70 There is little information in the Arabic sources on the trade in gum. Arabic gum was among the products brought to the Portuguese factory of Arguin at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 71 It became of considerable importance in the European trade on the Mauritanian coast from the seventeenth century. The oil extracted from the shea butter, or the karite, was used for cooking, for light, and for manufacturing soap. 72 The shea butter was exported to the north and was observed by Malfante at Tuat in 1447. 73 Kola, however, was by far the most commercialized fruit in West Africa.
'The nut' (al-jauz) is mentioned among the articles exported from the Sudan by the Maqqari brothers in the thirteenth century. 74 In 1586, the private physician of the Moroccan Sultan Ah.m ad al-Mansur al-Dhahabi described harrub al-Sudan ('carob of the Sudan'), also called goro. The fruit came from a place called Bitu close to the gold mines. It was transported in bags covered by wet leaves which kept the fruit fresh until it reached the Maghrib. The author saw the fruit, and he recorded the information about the tree and its location from a merchant who was trading with the Sudan.75
The Akan forest is the only region where both gold and kola were abundant and it was very likely this region that the sixteenth-century Maghrib source referred to as 'Bitu close to the gold mines'.76 The gold mines and the kola plantations are said to have been the two principal sources of the wealth of Mali.77 The bitter fruit, a diet of many Sudanese in the fourteenth century, may well have been the kola.78 By the sixteenth century there is clear evidence for its vvidespread consumption, and that people became almost addicted to it. 79 Kola nuts were given as presents by the askiyas.80
This scanty evidence indicates that during the age of the great empires the kola nut already fulfilled many of its more recent economic and social functions. 81 Kola is chewed and its liquid acts as a stimulant which helps to overcome thirst. Because of its value the kola comprises a most appropriate present and is often exchanged between a host and his guests or a chief and his subjects. The kola grows in the forest, but it is consumed mostly by people of the savannah and the Sahel. Hence its importance in generating long-distance trade.
A small amount only of the kola was exported to the Maghrib, and most of it was destined for markets south of the Sahara. The volume of the gold trade and its destination were conditioned by the changing relations of West Africa with the outside world. The kola trade, on the other hand, was an internal African affair. From the seventeenth century, when the gold trade declined, the kola trade expanded in response to an ever growing demand. During these centuries, the kola trade was crucial in the spread of Islam between the Sahel and the fringes of the forest.
Notes
1. Ca da Mosto (1895), 56.
2. Fernandes (1938), 87.
3. Leo Africahus (1956), II, 574.
4. Abu Hamid al-Andalusi (1925), 42; al-'Umari (1927), 83.
5. Fernandes (1951}, 75; Pacheco Pereira (1956), 83; Jobson (1932), 120; Mauny (1961), 324, 362; Rodney (1970), 18-20.
6. al-Bakri (1911), 171/tr. (1968), 66; al-Idrisi (1866), 2jtr. 2; Ibn Sa'id (1958), 23-4; Mauny (1961), 325-6, 357-8; Gaden (1910).
7. Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 377-8; Ibn Sa'id (1958), 47; al-Qazwini (1848), 16; Leo Africanus (1956), II, 455; Fernandes (1938), 89.
8. Mauny (1961), 359; Ibn Battuta, loc. cit.; Leo Africanus, loc. cit.; Fernandes (1938), 9. According to Pacheco Pereira (1956, 41) a camel carried five bars of salt.
9. T. al-Sildan, 106-7, 160-1/tr. 174, 193-4.
10 Fernandes (1938), 79; Ca da Mosto (1895), 54.
11. Fernandes (1938), 83-5; caravans from Wadan to Timbuktu were mentioned also by Ca da Mosto (1895), 44-5 and Diogo Gomes (1959), 20.
12. Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 378.
13. Ca da Mosto (1895), 55; Mauny (1961), 290.
14. Fernandes (1938), 85.
15. Ca da Mosto (1895),
16. al-Bakri (1911), 176/tr. (1968), 70, 72; al-'Umari {1927), 65-6; Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 404-.
17. Fernandes (1938), 85.
18. Meunie (1961), 28, 130; Delafosse (1924b), 158-9.
19. al-Bakri (1911), 159, 181/tr. (1968), 53, 78.
20. al-Mas'iidi, Akhbar al-zaman, in Youssouf Kamal III, 628.
21. al-Idrisi (1866), 8/tr. 9.
22. al-Ya'qubi, K. al-Buldan (1892), 45/tr. 205; al-Istakhri (1870), 40; al-Bakri (1911), 11/tr. (1913), 28-9.
23. al-Qazwini (1848), 16; Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 378, 440-1; Leo Africanus (1956), II, 479; Fernandes (1938), 87.
24. Teixeira da Mota (Manding Conference); see also Wilks (1961), 32, Fage (1962), 343-4.
25. Malfante in La Ronciere (1925), I, 151; Leo Africanus (1956), II, 468; Fernandes (1951), 55.
26. al-Idrisi (1866), 4, 6, 9/tr. 4, 7, 11.
27. Ca da Mosto (1895), 76-7; Fernandes (1951), 21.
28. al-Bakri (1911), 173/tr. (1968), 69; Jobson (1932), 72.
29. Caillie (1830), II, 358-9, 365.
30. Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 444-5; on slaves from Bornu to Takedda, see ibid., 441-2.
31. Leo Africanus (1956), II, 414.
32. T. al-Fattash, 104/tr. 193.
33. Zurara (1960), 216-17.
34. Ca da Mosto (1895), 48.
35. Leo Africanus (1956), I, 94; II, 424, 429.
36. ibid., I, 209.
37. Idris (1962), II, 525, 530-l.
38. Ibn 'Idhari (1961), 56-7,
39. al-'Umari (1927), 210; Leo Africanus (1956), I, 238.
40. Verlinden (1966); Malowist (1968), 174-6.
41. Zurara (1960), 123-4, 132, 190, 217, 248-50, 256; Ca da Mosto (1895), 39, 48; Fernandes (1938), 47, 63, 71; Fernandes (1951), 7, 19, 27, 43, 77; Pacheco Pereira (1956), 47, 53.
42. T. al-Fattash, 40, 41/tr. 72, 76.
43. al-Bakri (1911), 177 jtr. (1968), 74.
44. Leo Africanus (1956), II, 468, 471.
45. Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 425.
46. al-'Umari (1927), 66-7.
47. Leo Africanus (1956), II, 433.
48. Ca da Mosto (1895), 88, 116-17; Fernandes (1951), 7, 20-1,37, 43,
69; Pacheco Pereira (1956), 53, 59, 61, 73.
49. Idris (1962), II, 684.
50. Leo Africanus (1956), II, 480-1; see also Fisher (1970), 68-71.
51. Ibn Sa'id (1958), 24-5.
52. Ibn al-Faqih (1885), 87.
53. al-Bakri (1911), 175, 178/tr. (1968), 72, 75.
54. al-Idrisi (1866), 6/tr. 7.
55. al-Bakri (1911), 178/tr. (1968), 74.
56. ibid., 173/tr. 68-9.
57. Leo African us (1956), II, 465, 467.
58. T. al-Fattash, 180/tr. 315.
59. Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 387, 406.
60. Ca da Mosto (1895), 48.
61. La Ronciere (1925), I, 163.
62. Leo Africanus (1956), II, 471.
63. Fernandes (1938), 61, 63, 71, and (1951), 35, 37; Pacheco Pereira (1956), 4 7' 53, 65.
64. Fernandes (1951), 59. The Portuguese may have sold this Casamance cloth in Morocco, where Sudanic cloth was in demand. In the nineteenth century cloth and clothes were among the merchandise carried from Timbuktu to Morocco (Caillie, 1830, II, 365).
65. Teixeira da Mota (Manding Conference); see also Fage (1962).
66. al-Bakri (1911), 159/tr. (1968), 53; al-Idrisi (1966) 3/tr. 3; al-Dimashqi (1866), 268; Leo Africanus (1956), I, 115-16, II, 421.
67. La Ronciere (1925), I, 156.
68. Mauny (1970), 154.
69. Mauny (1961), 368-80.
70. al-Bakri (1911), 158/tr. (1968), 52.
71. Pacheco Pereira (1956), 39.
72. See al-'Umari (1927), 62; Ibn Battuta (1922), IV, 312-13.
73. La Ronciere (1925), I, 155.
74. Ibn al-Khatib (1319 A.H.), II, 137; al-Maqqari (1949), VII, 131/tr (1840-3), I, 303; Peres (1937), 413.
75. Renaud (1928), 51-3.
76. There is, however, yet another region of gold and kola: Jobson (1932, 184-5) tasted the kola on the Gambia: 'The Portingals will make as if they bring them into the river, by a trade they have in a great baye beyond Cacho, where they meete with a people, that brings them gold, and many of these nuts'. He may refer to Sierra Leone.
77. T. al-Fattash, 39/tr. 67.
78. al-'Umari (1927), 63.
79. T. al-Sudan, 92/tr. 152.
80. T. al-Fattash, 95, 97, 122, 162, 167/tr. 180, 182, 223-4, 288, 293.
81. Person (1968), 101-15.
By Nehemia Levtzion in "Ancient Ghana and Mali",Africana Publishing (A division of Holmes & Meier Publishers), New York, 1980, excerpts pp.171-182. Digitized, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.