Zeus now reigned supreme as king of the gods, though his brothers too were allotted lordship over their own particular domain: while Zeus retained the heavens, Poseidon took the seas and Hades the misty darkness of the Underworld. The other gods too had their own powers and functions, as we shall see. There were now fourteen major Greek deities, all of whom the Romans adopted in due course, identifying them with their own native Italian divinities. And since their own gods had very few stories of their own attached to them, they also adopted all the myths that were associated with their Greek counterparts.
The gods’ names, Greek (and Roman), were Zeus (Jupiter), Hera (Juno), Poseidon (Neptune), Hades (Pluto), Demeter (Ceres), Hestia (Vesta), Aphrodite (Venus), Apollo (he had no Italian equivalent, so for the Romans his name remained the same), Artemis (Diana), Athene (Minerva), Ares (Mars), Hephaistos (Vulcan), Hermes (Mercury) and Dionysos (Bacchus). These fourteen were more usually reduced to a canon of twelve principal gods (the Twelve Olympians) by omitting Hades, whose realm was beneath the earth, and Hestia. She was one of the older order of gods, and her place was taken by Dionysos, a great deity but a latecomer to the pantheon, being born of Zeus and a mortal woman, Semele.
The gods are imagined as glorious beings, human in form and character – and with human failings too, for they can be lustful, vengeful and petty – and having family and social lives similar to those of mortals. Yet they are far more beautiful than humans, more powerful, more knowledgeable; and, most important of all, they are very different from mortals in being ageless and deathless. Some are imagined as being mature and majestic (Zeus, Poseidon, Demeter), others forever young (Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite); but having reached whatever is their ideal maturity, there they remain. (Which is not to say that the image of a god was necessarily fixed for ever, since Dionysos, for instance, became younger as the centuries passed, while Eros, first conceived by Hesiod as a cosmic force and later seen as a beautiful youth, the son of Aphrodite and Ares, even became a young and mischievous child.)
They feast and drink, but their food is ambrosia and their drink nectar, and the divine fluid that runs through their veins is ichor, not blood. From early times they were believed to live on Mount Olympos, the highest mountain in Greece at almost 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) high, situated near the borders of Macedonia and Thessaly, and this gave them their familiar name of the Olympian gods. Gradually the concept of ‘Olympos’ became distinct from the mountain itself, and the gods were rather nebulously imagined as living a blissful life in the heaven above Mount Olympos, dwelling in divinely beautiful houses. Homer describes their blessed abode (Odyssey 6.42–6):
"Here, they say, the dwelling of the gods
stands firm forever. No winds disturb it,
rains drench, nor does snow come near,
but the clear air stretches away, cloudless,
a bright radiance playing over it. Here
the blessed gods live all their days in bliss".
A gate of clouds kept by the Horai, the goddesses of the seasons, opened to allow passage out of Olympos, so at any time the gods might leave their homes and come down to earth to interfere in human lives, helping or harming the mortals of their choice – and thus playing a very real part in the myths.
Zeus
Zeus (Jupiter) reigns over the heavens and is, therefore, a weather-god, the sender of rain, hail, snow and thunderstorms. His weapon is the thunderbolt, the symbol of his invincible power over gods and men. In Homer he is called ‘cloud-gatherer’, ‘thunderer on high’, ‘lord of the lightning’, Zeus who ‘delights in the thunder’, the ‘father of gods and men’.
Zeus hurling a thunderbolt, accompanied by his eagle. The overall impression of the Homeric Zeus, especially in the Iliad, is of one who dominates by tremendous physical power. He once punished Hera for persecuting his mortal son Herakles by suspending her from Olympos, her hands bound with a golden chain, and with anvils tied to her feet (15.18–20). When her son Hephaistos tried to help her, Zeus picked him up by his leg and flung him out of Olympos and down to earth. He is very ready to threaten any misbehaviour by the other gods with physical violence, and he himself boasts of his awesome supremacy (8.19–27):
‘If you hang down from heaven a chain of gold,
and lay hold of it, all you gods and goddesses,
you could never drag me down from heaven to earth,
not Zeus the counsellor most high, not if you try
full hard. Yet if I set my mind to drag you up,
then I’d hoist you up together with earth and sea,
and tie the chain around the peak of Olympos,
leaving the whole world hanging in mid-air.
By so much am I stronger than gods and men.’
In the Odyssey, Homer depicts Zeus as rather more diplomatic; and as time went by he was seen more and more as a god who dominates by wisdom and justice, rather than by force and threats.
Certainly he was seen as the protector of law and justice on earth, with his epithets indicating the spheres over which he had jurisdiction. He was the defender of the household (Herkeios), the hearth (Ephestios), property (Ktesios), friendships (Philios), oaths (Horkios), hospitality (Xenios), suppliants (Hikesios), and mankind in general (Soter, Saviour). In contrast to this, he himself was a serial adulterer and his children by his many lovers were legion – though perhaps this is no surprise, since it would have been seen as the greatest glory to have Zeus as the divine progenitor of a human genealogy. He was such an incorrigible philanderer, and told so many of his own lies to Hera, that he was said to pardon all false oaths made by mortals in the name of love. (Shakespeare’s Juliet would echo this: ‘at lovers’ perjuries, they say, Jove laughs.’) He often came to mortal women in disguise, both to trick his unwitting quarry and to evade his jealous wife, who was always (and justifiably) ready to suspect him of misbehaviour. As the poet and critic Graham Hough would put it (Children of Zeus):
"Ageless, lusty, he twists into bull, ram, serpent,
Swan, gold rain; a hundred wily disguises
To catch girl, nymph, or goddess; begets tall heroes
... All that scribe or sculptor
Chronicle is no more than fruit of his hot embraces
With how many surprised recumbent breasts and haunches."
In ancient art Zeus is depicted as a stately, bearded figure, often holding his invincible weapon, the thunderbolt, and a long sceptre, which was also the symbol of authority among human rulers. He is often accompanied by his emblematic bird, the majestic eagle, lord of all other birds. His most famous representation in antiquity was the colossal statue in gold and ivory, created by the artist and sculptor Pheidias for the god’s great temple at Olympia. Although it has long been lost, we know a great deal about it from written descriptions, such as that of the traveller Pausanias (5.11). It was judged to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Hera
Hera (Juno) is the sister and wife of Zeus and the queen of heaven. As we have seen, she bore Zeus three (or four) children: the war-god Ares, Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, and Hebe, the goddess of youth. Their fourth child, the crippled smith-god Hephaistos, was sometimes said to have been born of Hera alone.
As the goddess of marriage, married women and childbirth, she was worshipped at sanctuaries throughout the Greek world. Her two most renowned centres of cult were on the island of Samos, where her temple was one of the largest in Greece, and her Argive temple between Argos and Mycenae. Her connection with Argos was particularly close. In the Iliad (4.51–2) Hera names it as one of her three favourite cities, the other two being Mycenae and Sparta; and both Homer and Hesiod refer to her as Argive Hera.
In ancient art Hera is depicted as a regal and matronly woman, often carrying a sceptre or wearing a crown. Her royal bird is the peacock, its tail decorated with the many eyes of All-seeing Argos after his death at the hands of Hermes (p. 161). In the Argive Heraion there was a colossal ivory and gold statue of Hera on her throne, fashioned by the great sculptor Polykleitos and famous for its beauty, but now familiar only from its depictions on Argive coins. Pausanias (2.17.3–4) says that on her crown were depicted the Graces and the Horai, and in one hand she held a pomegranate, in the other a sceptre. On the sceptre was seated a cuckoo, the bird whose form Zeus took to seduce Hera before their marriage. He was always a master of successful disguise, and Hera caught the enchanting bird to be her pet – at which point, of course, Zeus returned to his real form and made love to her. (‘This story and suchlike tales about the gods I relate without believing them,’ says the rational Pausanias, ‘but I relate them nonetheless.’)
Despite her great importance as a goddess of cult, Hera is most often presented in literature and myth as a wronged wife with a vindictive nature, continually jealous of Zeus’s many infidelities, who persecutes both his mistresses and the children that result from his liaisons. For instance, she tried to deny Leto a place to give birth to Apollo and Artemis; she turned Kallisto into a bear and Io into a cow; she caused Semele’s death; she plagued Herakles, Zeus’s son by Alkmene, throughout his whole life. Yet perhaps her most memorable portrayal is a more kindly one: it occurs in the Iliad, where Homer describes how Hera seduces Zeus so as to draw his attention away from the battlefield at Troy (14.153–353). She makes careful preparations, and bribes Hypnos (Sleep) to lull Zeus into slumber as soon as her plan succeeds and their lovemaking is over.
Then she borrows Aphrodite’s alluring girdle, worn next to the breasts, and this makes her so overpoweringly attractive that Zeus cannot restrain his desire to make love to her. ‘Never before have I wanted anyone so much,’ he says, ‘not when I loved Ixion’s wife, not when I loved Danae, not when I loved Europa, not when I loved …’, and so he goes on, tactlessly chronicling his many infidelities. Hera is tolerant, for she is achieving her aims. Then: the son of Kronos clasped his wife in his arms, and beneath them the holy earth sprouted fresh-grown grass, and dewy clover, and crocuses, and hyacinths so thick and soft it held the hard ground from them. On this they lay together, and a beautiful golden cloud covered them, from which fell glistening drops of dew.
Poseidon
Poseidon (Neptune) is the god of the sea, and like the sea itself he can at times be serene and kindly, and at others violent and tempestuous, when his fearsome rage brings terrifying storms on the world. Homer vividly depicts both sides of the mighty god. Here he journeys peacefully across his territory (Iliad 13.23–30):
"He harnessed to his chariot his two bronze-shod horses,
swift of foot, with long, streaming manes of gold.
Himself clothed in gold, he seized his well-wrought
golden whip, then climbing into his chariot he drove
across the waves. On every side, from the deeps of the sea,
came dolphins, playing in his path, acknowledging their lord,
and the sea parted in joy, cleaving a path before him.
So swiftly sped the horses that never once
was the axle of bronze beneath made wet with foam."
And we see the god in violent action when he wields his trident to send storms against Odysseus, in revenge for his blinding of the Cyclops Polyphemos, Poseidon’s son (Odyssey 5.291–7):
"He drew the clouds together and grasping his trident
he stirred up the sea. He roused the stormblasts
of all the winds together, and covered with clouds
both earth and sea alike. Night rushed down from heaven.
East wind and south wind struck, and stormy west wind,
and heaven-born north wind, rolling up great waves."
On land, too, Poseidon wields his tempestuous power, for he is Enosichthon and Ennosigaios, the Earth-shaker, and with his trident he can stir up earthquakes at will. He is also god of horses, in which guise he is known as Poseidon Hippios, ‘Horse Poseidon’. Some say that he created the very first horse, either by fertilizing the rocky ground with his semen, or by striking it with his trident. Certainly he fathered the winged horse Pegasos on the Gorgon Medusa, and he often provided wondrous horses for his mortal favourites. When the goddess Demeter turned herself into a mare to avoid his amorous attentions, he himself became a stallion and mounted her, and she bore the divine horse Areion. In a modern poem, Roy Campbell epitomizes Poseidon’s dual nature as sea-god and god of horses in his Horses on the Camargue:
"I heard a sudden harmony of hooves,
And, turning, saw afar
A hundred snowy horses unconfined,
The silver runaways of Neptune’s car
Racing, spray-curled, like waves before the wind.
Sons of the Mistral, fleet
As him with whose strong gusts they love to flee,
Who shod the flying thunders on their feet
And plumed them with the snorting of the sea …
But when the great gusts rise
And lash their anger on these arid coasts,
When the scared gulls career with mournful cries
And whirl across the waste like driven ghosts:
When hail and fire converge,
The only souls to which they strike no pain
Are the white-crested fillies of the surge
And the white horses of the windy plain.
Then in their strength and pride
The stallions of the wilderness rejoice;
They feel their Master’s trident in their side
And high and shrill they answer to his voice.
With white tails smoking free,
Long streaming manes and arching necks, they show
Their kinship to their sisters of the sea –
And forward hurl their thunderbolts of snow."
In ancient art Poseidon is a majestic bearded figure, not unlike Zeus, but wilder in appearance and easily recognized by his emblem, the three-pronged trident, which served as both sceptre and weapon. He sometimes holds a fish and is often accompanied by some of his sea creatures; occasionally he rides a hippocamp (a hybrid with the foreparts of a horse and the tail of a fish).
Like Zeus, Poseidon had a host of mortal sons, many of them as rough and unpredictable as their father. His divine wife was the Nereid Amphitrite. At first she was a reluctant bride, for when he began to woo her, she fled from him into the sea, so he sent all the sea-creatures, his servants, to seek for her. A dolphin was the first to find her, and pleaded so persuasively for his master that she gave in and married him. Out of gratitude, the sea-god immortalized the dolphin in the stars as the constellation Delphinus.
Poseidon and Amphitrite lived together in a splendid golden palace in the depths of the sea. They had a son, Triton, a merman with a human head and torso and a coiling, fishy tail, who is often depicted blowing on his conch-shell horn.
Originally only one, he later becomes pluralized into a whole range of Tritons who make up Poseidon’s retinue, or sport with Nereids in the waves. A Triton blowing his horn, raising the great shell to his bearded lips, has been a popular choice for fountain-figures, as on Bernini’s Triton Fountain in the Piazza Barbarini in Rome, and with his father Poseidon on Rome’s famous Trevi Fountain. In Wordsworth’s passionate sonnet The World is Too Much with Us, Triton, together with the sea-god Proteus, becomes a symbol of a lost and less materialistic world:
"Great God! I’d rather be
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea,
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn."
Demeter
Demeter (Ceres) is the goddess of corn, the giver of grain and thus of bread, man’s staple food, and so the great sustainer of life on earth. To her brother Zeus she bore a daughter, Persephone (Proserpina), also known as Kore (‘the Girl’), with whom she was closely associated in Greek cult, the two of them often being called simply ‘the Two Goddesses’, or even ‘the Demeters’. Mother and daughter frequently appear together in ancient art, often holding torches and wearing crowns, sometimes holding sceptres and stalks of grain.
Demeter’s principal myth concerns Persephone’s abduction by Hades, the god of the Underworld, and her own long search for her beloved daughter, movingly recounted in the early Homeric Hymn (2) in her honour. Zeus supports Hades’ desire to have Persephone for his wife, but he is well aware that Demeter would not agree, so he secretly abets his brother. One day, when Persephone is gathering flowers in a meadow with her friends, she wanders apart from the others and sees a glorious narcissus, covered with a hundred fragrant blooms, which Zeus has created to ensnare her. As she reaches out with both hands to pick the radiant flower, the earth gapes open and out from the chasm speeds Hades in his golden chariot. He snatches up the girl, caring nothing for her screams, and carries her down into his gloomy realm below. While she can still see the light of the sun, she cries out for her mother, and Demeter, hearing her, darts towards the sound as swift as a bird. But she is too late, for Persephone has disappeared.
For nine days and nights Demeter does not eat or drink, but wanders the earth with flaming torches in her hand, seeking her daughter. On the tenth day she meets the goddess Hekate, who also heard Persephone’s cries, and together they go to consult the Sun-god Helios, who sees all things on his daily journey across the sky. He tells them that Hades has carried the girl off to be his bride and that Zeus approves of the match, and he tries to reassure Demeter that Hades is a worthy husband for her daughter. But Demeter is so angry that she deserts Olympos and the dwellings of the gods, and goes to live among mortals disguised as an old woman.
In her wanderings she comes to Eleusis in Attica. Here, sad at heart, she rests in the shade of an olive tree, near the Maiden Well from which the women draw their water. The four daughters of the local king, Keleos, come to the well and greet her kindly, pitying her great age and her loneliness, and she tells them that she is seeking domestic work of some kind. They take her home to their mother Metaneira, who welcomes her warmly and makes her the nurse of her late-born baby son, Demophon. In this friendly home the goddess’s spirits are cheered by the jokes of the old serving woman, Iambe, and she laughs for the first time since the loss of her daughter.
Demophon flourishes under her care and, in gratitude for the kindness shown her, Demeter begins to make her infant charge immortal, secretly burning away his mortal part in the fire each night and anointing him with ambrosia each day. But one night Metaneira interrupts her and cries out in alarm, horrified at seeing her little son in the fire. At once Demeter rebukes her soundly and reassumes her divine splendour. Revealing her true identity, she tells Metaneira that if the Eleusinians wish to win back her favour, they must build her a great temple.
Keleos and his people duly do so, and here Demeter lives for a whole year, longing for her daughter and still resolutely keeping away from Olympos. Now in her grief she makes the whole earth barren. No corn will grow and a great famine afflicts mankind, so that Zeus is afraid there will soon be no men left to offer sacrifices to the gods. He sends Iris with a message to Demeter, ordering her to Olympos, but she refuses to come. He sends all the gods, one by one, to offer her gifts and plead with her, but still she refuses, saying that she will never again set foot on Olympos, nor allow the earth to yield, until she sees her dear daughter once again. So Zeus gives in and sends Hermes to fetch Persephone home. But before she leaves the Underworld, Hades secretly gives her a pomegranate seed to eat.
Hermes drives her in Hades’ golden chariot to the temple at Eleusis, and when Demeter sees him bringing her daughter, she rushes out in joy. Persephone leaps down and runs to her, and the two of them embrace, rejoicing. But because Persephone has eaten while in the Underworld, she cannot leave it completely and is obliged to spend four months of every year as the wife of Hades. These are the months when winter grips the land and the seed lies dormant within the earth. For the rest of the year, the spring and summer months of life and growth and harvest, Persephone lives joyously with her mother. Demeter, accepting this compromise, now makes the earth bring forth rich harvests once again, and she returns to Eleusis, where she teaches the Eleusinians the new and secret rites, known as the Eleusinian Mysteries, that will be performed for many centuries in her honour.
Although Demeter was widely worshipped throughout the ancient world, Eleusis was always her best-known place of cult and her rites became the greatest of all mystery religions. There is evidence at Eleusis of at least eighteen centuries of continuous worship, from Mycenaean times until the sanctuary was destroyed in AD 395. Although the details of the rites were successfully kept secret, it seems that they centred on Demeter’s search for her lost daughter and Persephone’s return and reunion with her mother, symbolizing both the rebirth of the crops in spring and the mystic rebirth of the initiates after death.
Demeter’s Homeric Hymn names the leading citizens of Eleusis to whom she taught her rites: Keleos, Diokles, Eumolpos, Polyxeinos – and Triptolemos. In later literature Triptolemos became a more significant figure: not just a citizen of Eleusis, but the eldest son of Keleos and Metaneira, and more importantly the mortal whom Demeter chose to transmit her gift of grain and agriculture to the world. She gave Triptolemus a supply of corn and a chariot drawn by winged dragons, and in this he flew over all the earth, scattering the corn and teaching the people how to cultivate crops.
Another significant figure was the son borne by Demeter to Iasion, son of Zeus and the Pleiad Elektra, after lying with him in a thrice-ploughed field in Crete. This son was the divine Ploutos, ‘Wealth’, who represented the wealth and good fortune yielded by the earth. Hesiod (Theogony 972–4) describes him as ‘a kindly god, who goes everywhere over the earth and the broad back of the sea, and whoever finds him, and into whose hands he comes, that man he makes rich and bestows much fortune on him’. Ploutos had an important part to play in the Mysteries of Eleusis, and he is depicted in art in the company of Demeter and Persephone, usually as a naked boy holding a cornucopia or a bunch of grain stalks. As for Iasion, Homer records (Odyssey 5.125–8) that Zeus struck him down with a thunderbolt for his presumption in lying with a goddess.
Later tradition added further incidents to Demeter’s myth. During her long search for her daughter, according to Pausanias (1.37.2), an Athenian called Phytalos gave the weary mother hospitality and in return she rewarded him with the gift of the first fig tree. Pausanias saw Phytalos’s grave, with its inscription recording the honour in which he and his race were held because he had won such a rich gift for mankind.
Ovid gives us several tales of metamorphosis. One of these concerns a Sicilian water-nymph named Kyane (‘Blue’) who saw Hades making off with Persephone in his chariot (Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.409–77). Kyane rose from her pool and tried to block his path, but Hades drove straight into her waters, hurling his royal sceptre into their depths and opening up a pathway down into the Underworld. The chariot hurtled through the yawning crater, and Kyane was left alone to grieve for the fate of Persephone, and for the contempt that Hades had shown for her own dear pool. She grieved so much that she wasted entirely away with weeping, dissolving into her own waters until nothing remained of her. When Demeter came by during her search, Kyane could no longer speak to tell her what she knew, so instead she showed Persephone’s belt floating on the surface of her pool as a silent token of the girl’s fate.
A second story (5.446–61) relates how Demeter, hot and thirsty from her long travels, stopped at the door of a cottage to ask for a drink. The old woman who lived there gave her some barley water, which she gulped down so thirstily that the woman’s cheeky son, Askalabos, laughed at her and taunted her for being greedy. The offended goddess threw the remains of the drink into his face and he was changed into a spotted lizard. His mother wept, putting out her hand to touch the little creature, but it fled away in fear and she never saw it again.
A similar fate was suffered by another boy, Askalaphos, the son of the Underworld river-god Acheron (5.533–50). When Persephone ate seven pomegranate seeds on her visit to Hades, Askalaphos was the only witness, and unfortunately he told of what he had seen. Because this meant that Persephone could not now return permanently to her mother, but would have to spend part of each year in the Underworld, she punished him by flinging water from the river Phlegethon into his face and transforming him into an ill-omened bird of the dark, the screech-owl. In Apollodorus’ version (1.5.3, 2.5.12) it was Demeter who punished him. She imprisoned him under a heavy rock, and there he stayed until Herakles came down to fetch Kerberos and rolled the rock away. But Demeter was still angry with the boy, and she turned him once again into an owl.
Finally, an even less happy fate was suffered by the impious Erysichthon (8.738–878). When he needed some timber to build a banqueting-hall, he had no hesitation in cutting down the trees in Demeter’s sacred grove. He even attacked one huge, old oak, towering high above all the other trees and, as his axe blade cut into the wood, blood began to flow out of it from the nymph who lived inside the tree. Despite this he carried on, and when a bystander objected, Erysichthon lopped off his head.
The tree fell, and all the nymphs who had often danced beneath it begged Demeter to punish its destroyer, so she laid an insatiable hunger on Erysichthon while he was asleep. When he woke up he could think of nothing but food: he ate continually, and the more he ate, the more he longed to eat. He used up all his worldly wealth buying food, and still he was afflicted with a raging greed. At last, to raise more money, he sold his daughter Mestra into slavery. She had once been the lover of Poseidon, so now she prayed for help to the sea-god and he granted her the power of metamorphosis. She escaped by turning into a fisherman, and then became herself once again. After this her father often sold her as a slave to raise money for food, and each time she changed her shape and went free, ready to be sold again. Yet even this was not enough, and in the end Erysichthon began to gnaw at his own flesh, feeding his body by eating it away, and so died.
Yet the most memorable of Demeter’s mythical stories remains her long, anguished search for her lost daughter, hauntingly alluded to by Milton in Paradise Lost (4.268–72, where he gives mother and daughter their Roman names, and places Persephone’s abduction at Enna, in central Sicily):
"... that faire field
Of Enna, where Proserpin gathring flours
Her self a fairer Floure by gloomie Dis
Was gatherd, which cost Ceres all that pain
To seek her through the world."
Hestia
Hestia (Vesta) is the goddess of the hearth, the sacred fire at the centre of every home and every community. She was wooed by her brother Poseidon and her nephew Apollo, but instead of marrying she renounced sexual love and swore an oath of eternal chastity. While other gods travelled the world, Hestia remained quietly on Olympos and so played no part in the stories of mythology. In compensation Zeus granted her special honours, for as goddess of the hearth she was worshipped in every household and in all the temples of the gods, and thus she had a very real power. As her Homeric Hymn (29) puts it:
Hestia, you have won an eternal home and the greatest of honours in the high dwellings of all, both immortal gods and men who walk the earth. Glorious is your privilege and your praise. For without you men can have no feasts, and to you the sweet wine is poured both first and last.
Hestia’s Roman counterpart, Vesta, was not only goddess of the hearth, but guardian of the community. The priestesses who oversaw her cult at Rome were known as the Vestal Virgins, and they kept an eternal fire burning on her altar, tending it night and day. Attached to Vesta’s temple was the cult of the state Penates (Penates Publici, protectors of Rome), which were said to have been saved from the flames of Troy and brought to Italy by Aeneas. These were the public equivalent of the domestic Penates, the household gods who protected the home.
At Vesta’s festival, the Vestalia, asses were adorned with necklaces of loaves and did no work, because Vesta was once saved by an ass from the amorous designs of the ithyphallic god Priapos. After a feast of Kybele, where all the gods and nymphs and satyrs ate and drank their fill, Vesta fell asleep. Priapos saw her and desired her, and he would have had her too, if a bray from Silenos’s ass had not woken her in time to see him advancing on her with his gigantic phallus erect. So the goddess escaped a painful fate, and ever afterwards asses were honoured in her name.
Aphrodite and Eros
Aphrodite (Venus) is the goddess of erotic love and the giver of beauty and sexual attraction. Literature from Homer onwards celebrates the power of love and the dominion of Aphrodite. Her longest Homeric Hymn (5) begins: ‘Tell me, Muse, the deeds of golden Aphrodite, the Cyprian, who stirs up sweet desire in the gods, and overcomes the tribes of mortal men, and the birds that fly in the air, and all the creatures that live on dry land and in the sea.’ The only living beings immune to her influence were the three virgin goddesses Athene, Artemis and Hestia. Everyone else, mortal and immortal alike, was open to the power and pain of love. Sappho begins her famous Hymn to Aphrodite with the words, ‘Richly enthroned, immortal Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus, weaver of wiles, I pray you, Lady, break not my spirit with heartache or grief.’
As we have seen, Aphrodite was born, according to Hesiod, from the sea-foam that gathered around the severed genitals of Ouranos. There was also a more conventional version of her birth, for to Homer she was simply the daughter of Zeus and Dione, who is a rather obscure figure and may have been a Titan, an Oceanid or a Nereid. Whatever Dione’s origin, she was once most likely an important goddess, especially as her name seems to be the feminine form of Zeus (Greek stem Di-).
Aphrodite herself was married to the crippled smith-god, Hephaistos, but she bore him no children and was an unfaithful wife. Her regular lover was the war-god, Ares. The Odyssey (8.266–366) recounts a famous episode during their liaison, in which the Sun-god Helios, travelling across the sky, spotted the lovers lying together and reported the affair to Hephaistos. The crafty god planned a clever revenge on his errant wife and her lover: he fashioned a magical, invisible net over his marriage-bed, then pretended to go away on a journey to Lemnos (an island always particularly associated with him).
The Venus de Milo.
Naturally the lovers took this opportunity to go to bed together, but in the midst of their passion the net descended, catching them immovably in its snare. Hephaistos at once came in, calling all the other gods to witness the humiliation of the naked and helpless pair. The goddesses stayed away out of modesty, but all the gods came and laughed their fill, with Hermes confessing to Apollo that to be in bed with golden Aphrodite would be worth a far greater penalty. Poseidon at last persuaded the angry Hephaistos to release the lovers, on the understanding that Ares would pay a fine. Ares went off to Thrace and Aphrodite to her sacred precinct on Cyprus, where the Graces bathed and adorned her, soothing her wounded dignity.
Aphrodite bore several children to Ares: a daughter, Harmonia, who married the mortal Kadmos, and two sons, the warrior-twins Phobos and Deimos. Their names mean ‘Terror’ and ‘Fear’, suitable children for the war-god, whom they often accompanied on the battlefield: ‘They are terrible gods,’ says Hesiod (Theogony 935–6), ‘who, along with Ares, sacker of cities, put to rout the close-packed ranks of men in chilling war.’
According to later tradition (first in the lyric poet Simonides, 575) Aphrodite’s most famous son by Ares was Eros, the god of love. This was not so in early myth, for in Hesiod’s Theogony Eros was one of the primal entities, born at the beginning of time (p. 21). To Hesiod he was a fundamental cosmic force, like Aphrodite herself inspiring love, and omnipotent over mortals and gods alike: ‘the most beautiful of the immortal gods, he melts the limbs, and overpowers the reason and the careful plans in the breasts of all gods and all men’ (120–22). He was present at Aphrodite’s birth to welcome her to the world, and thereafter became her constant companion (192–202), inflicting love on whomever she chose.
Eros kindling love.
Perhaps the archaic lyric poets give us the most memorable images of Eros’s violent impact on body and mind. From Sappho: ‘Eros shook my heart, like a wind falling on mountain oaks’ (47); and ‘Once again Eros melts my limbs and spins me round, bitter-sweet creature, irresistible’ (130). From Anacreon (413): ‘Once again Eros, like a blacksmith, has struck me with his great axe, and has plunged me into an icy mountain torrent.’ From Ibycus (287): ‘Once again Eros looks at me meltingly from under his dark eyelids, and with all his enchantments flings me into the inescapable nets of Aphrodite. How I tremble at his onset, like a prize-winning horse, now old, who is put once again in the chariot-yoke and goes all unwilling to the race.’ Euripides (Medea 530–31) is the first to mention the bow and arrows with which Eros pierces his victims and takes them captive.
In ancient art Eros (or even a plurality of Erotes) naturally often accompanies Aphrodite. He appears first as a beautiful winged youth, but he grows younger as time passes, and in Hellenistic times and later he is depicted by both poets and artists as a mischievous infant, with a torch that could inflame love, and a bow and quiver full of inescapable arrows.
Aphrodite herself was a favourite subject of sculpture. Early statues from the archaic and classical periods usually show her decorously draped in long robes; but from the fourth century she is regularly portrayed nude (or nearly so), as the ideal of female beauty. Her two most famous statues are the Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo) of the second century BC (p. 70), now in the Louvre, Paris (probably the most famous female nude of all time), and the Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, of about 350 BC, showing a modest Aphrodite about to enter her bath, now lost, but well known to us from coins and many Roman copies.
Aphrodite so often inflicted helpless love on the other gods, including of course Zeus, that Zeus in retaliation made her suffer the humiliation of falling in love with a cowherd, Anchises, so that she might know what it was like to be tormented with desire for a mortal. Her Homeric Hymn (5) describes her passion. She saw Anchises tending his cattle on Mount Ida and was seized with desire for him. Bathed and bedecked by the Graces, she went down to earth in the guise of a Phrygian princess (68–74):
"So she came to Ida of the many springs,
the home of wild beasts, and went straight
to his dwelling across the mountain. After her
came grey wolves and bright-eyed lions,
bears and swift leopards, eager for deer,
all of them fawning on her. And seeing them
she was glad in her heart, and put desire
in their breasts, so that two and two they mated,
all through the shadowy groves."
She came to Anchises ‘clad in a robe outshining the brightness of fire, a beautiful golden robe of rich and varied work, which shimmered like the moon over her tender breasts, a wonder to behold. And she wore twisted bracelets and shining earrings like flowers, and around her soft throat were lovely necklaces. Love seized Anchises ...’ (86–91).
He thought her a goddess, but she assured him that she was merely a mortal girl, the daughter of the Phrygian king Otreus, and had been carried to Ida by Hermes to be a bride for Anchises himself. Let them, she said, consummate their union here and now. Joyfully Anchises agreed (155–67):
"He caught her by the hand, and laughter-loving Aphrodite
turned, and with her lovely eyes cast down, she crept
to his well-strewn bed, already laid with soft covers,
the skins of bears and loud-roaring lions
which he himself had slain in the high mountains.
And when they had come to the well-made bed,
Anchises first took off the gleaming ornaments,
the pins and twisted brooches, earrings, necklaces,
and loosed her girdle and took off her bright robes
and laid them down on a silver-studded chair.
Then, by the will of the gods and destiny, he lay with her,
a mortal man lying with an immortal goddess,
without knowing clearly what he did."
After their union she drifted sweet sleep over him, and only when he awoke did she reveal her true identity. At once Anchises was afraid, certain that now he would be punished, and he turned away his face and begged the goddess to have mercy on him. She reassured him, saying that she would bear him a son, Aineias (better known as Aeneas), who would be reared by the mountain-nymphs until his fifth year, and then she would bring the boy to his father. All would be well so long as Anchises never named his son’s real mother, but said that he was a nymph’s child.
It happened as Aphrodite predicted, except that years later, while Anchises was drunk, he told his great secret and was punished for diminishing Aphrodite’s honour: Zeus struck him with a thunderbolt and either blinded or crippled him.
Apollo
Apollo (so called by both Greeks and Romans) is the patron of music and the arts, and the leader of the Muses. He is the god of prophecy and divination, presiding at Delphi over the most famous oracle in Greece. He is the god of purification and healing, often called Paion; but just as Zeus wields the thunderbolt and Poseidon the trident, Apollo’s weapon is the bow, and his arrows can bring plague and death. Homer calls him ‘Lord of the silver bow’ and Apollo the ‘Far-shooter’. Also known, from Homer onwards, as Phoibos Apollo, the Shining One, he came to be seen during the fifth century BC as a sun-god and was sometimes identified with the Sun-god Helios, an identification that later became standard.
Apollo embodies the values of order and harmony, reason and moderation, exemplifying the proverbial Greek maxims ‘Know thyself’ and ‘Nothing too much’. In ancient art he is young, almost always beardless and often naked, the epitome of youthful male beauty. His attributes are the lyre and the bow, and sometimes a wreath of laurel. Perhaps the finest depiction of this austere and rational god is the sculpture on the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, where he oversees the violent battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, a guarantor of final order and serenity.
Apollo was the son of Zeus and the Titan Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis. As the time approached for her babies to be born, Leto wandered through many lands, seeking a place for her labour, but no country dared let her rest because they feared the wrath of Hera, who was always vindictive to Zeus’s loves. Finally Leto came to the little island of Delos in the Cyclades, which alone was brave enough to receive her, but even now she was still beset by Hera’s fury. The jealous goddess kept Eileithyia, who presided over childbirth, close by her on Olympos so that she would not hear of Leto’s distant sufferings and deliver her of her child.
Leto was racked with labour pains for nine days and nights, all fruitless, until at last the other goddesses, pitying her, sent Iris to fetch Eileithyia, offering her a splendid necklace strung with golden threads if she would come and end Leto’s long labour. The Homeric Hymn to Apollo (3) relates how the first child, Apollo, was born (115–19): ‘As soon as Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth, set foot on Delos, Leto’s time was come and she strove to bring forth her child. She clasped her arms around a palm tree, kneeling on the soft meadow while the earth laughed for joy beneath, and the child leapt forth to the light.’
The Hymn does not dwell on the birth of Artemis that followed (and indeed it was sometimes said that Artemis was born first, then acted as midwife for the birth of Apollo). Instead it goes on to recount the early days of the young god. As soon as he was born, Themis fed him with nectar and ambrosia, then at once he sprang up to stride forth into the world. His first words declared his three major concerns (131–2): ‘The lyre and the curved bow shall ever be my special care, and I shall prophesy to men the infallible will of Zeus.’
The young Apollo travelled over the earth, seeking a place to found his oracular shrine. His first choice was Haliartos in western Boiotia, but the nymph of the local spring, Telphousa, had no wish to share her pleasant spot. She persuaded the god to move on to the area of Krisa, on the southern slopes of Mount Parnassos, claiming that it would be far more peaceful there than at her spring, often frequented by horses and mules.
So Apollo chose the ideal spot, at Delphi, but found that it was the lair of a monstrous she-dragon, later called Python, who was plaguing the surrounding countryside, killing the inhabitants and ravaging their flocks. He shot the great serpent dead, after which the locality was also named Pytho because her carcase rotted away (pyth-) in the sun beside the sacred spring. He himself was called Pythian Apollo, and now the place was his. But he returned to Haliartos to punish Telphousa for sending him into Python’s lair: he covered the nymph’s spring with a great mound of rocks, and he subordinated her cult to his own by creating an altar to Telphousian Apollo in a nearby grove. In later times the famous blind seer Teiresias, whose prophecy was inspired by Apollo, died after drinking Telphousa’s waters, so perhaps this was the nymph’s revenge.
At Delphi, Apollo established his oracular shrine. In the form of a dolphin, he diverted a shipload of Cretans sailing to Pylos and brought them to Delphi to be his priests. Later it was said that he founded the Pythian Games – celebrated every four years and second only to the games at Olympia – to commemorate the dead Python, and that his prophetess at Delphi was known as the Pythia in her memory. His victory over the serpent symbolizes the triumph of the Olympian god of light over the chthonian forces of darkness, and his Oracle became the most important in Greece. Near to Delphi was the famous Kastalian Spring, whose waters have always been said to have the power of inspiration. Mount Parnassos itself came to be seen not only as the home of Apollo, but as the haunt of the Muses and the seat of poetry and music.
In Apollo’s temple at Delphi stood the omphalos, a stone conical in form and shaped like an old-fashioned bee-skep, marking the centre (the ‘navel’) of the earth. Zeus had once determined this exact centre by releasing two eagles, one from the eastern bounds of the earth and one from the west, then marking the place where they met. Delphi was also in many ways the spiritual centre of the ancient world. The Pythia’s seat of prophecy was a tripod, a metal bowl supported by three legs, and from this she gave out Apollo’s oracles in a state of trance. Interpreted for the inquirer by priests, these oracles were renowned for their ambiguity; and indeed one of Apollo’s epithets was Loxias, ‘he who talks obliquely’. (Although the most famous of all mythical oracles, telling Oedipus that he would kill his father and marry his mother, was entirely clear – simply misleading.)
Apollo had a number of children by mortal women, many of whom were graced with their father’s special accomplishments. Three in particular will be mentioned at this point, all of whom were skilled in healing and/or prophecy. The first of these was the god of healing and medicine, Asklepios (Aesculapius to the Romans). In the usual version of the myth, Asklepios’s mother was the Thessalian Koronis, daughter of Phlegyas. It was said that Apollo fell in love with her when he saw her washing her feet in Lake Boibias; but even after she was made pregnant by the god, she still preferred the mortal Ischys, son of Elatos. She knew that Apollo would tire of her when her beauty faded, whereas Ischys would, in the nature of things, grow old along with her, so she planned to marry her mortal lover, even against her father’s wishes. Unfortunately, Apollo left a crow to keep watch on Koronis, and when it spotted her making love with Ischys, it flew excitedly to the god to report her infidelity. The angry god cursed the crow, turning it black when it had previously been white – since when all crows have been black.
He sent his sister Artemis to kill Koronis, but as her corpse lay burning on the funeral pyre, he saved her baby, snatching him from her body even as it burned. He gave this son of his, Asklepios, to be reared by the wise Centaur Cheiron, who educated the boy and taught him the arts of medicine. Eventually Asklepios had two sons of his own well skilled in the medicinal arts, Machaon and Podaleirios who fought at Troy, and also several daughters who were the personifications of one aspect or another of healing, including Hygeia, the personification of health.
Asklepios himself became a superb healer who finally encroached on the gods’ preserve by bringing a corpse back to life. Zeus struck doctor and patient dead with a thunderbolt, making Apollo so angry that he in turn killed the Cyclopes, who had forged the lethal bolt for Zeus. As punishment, Apollo was forced to serve a mortal, Admetos, for a year (p. 554).
Asklepios’s principal sanctuary in Greece was at Epidauros in the Peloponnese. Here people seeking cures slept in the temple overnight to await visitation from the god. Snakes were sacred to Asklepios and were present at his many shrines, regularly assisting in the cures. Following a plague in 293 BC, his worship was taken to Rome. In art, he is shown carrying a staff with a snake coiled around it, and his eternal symbol in the heavens is the constellation Ophiuchus, the Serpent-holder.
Another son of Apollo who was skilled in both healing and prophecy was Aristaios, son of the nymph and huntress Kyrene. Pindar describes her encounter with the god in his Pythian Ode 9 (1–70). Apollo fell in love with Kyrene one day when he saw her on Mount Pelion, wrestling single-handedly with a huge lion, and asked the Centaur Cheiron who she was. Cheiron, realizing that Apollo was dissembling, could not resist teasing him a little:
‘Do you ask, lord, the girl’s birth? You who know the appointed end of all things, and all the ways that lead there. You know how many leaves the earth puts forth in spring, you know how many grains of sand in the sea and the rivers are driven before the waves and the rushing winds. You know what will be, and why it will be – all this you see clearly.’
The Centaur then predicted that Apollo would carry Kyrene off to Libya and make her queen of a city named after her – and this the god did, bearing her away in his golden chariot.
Kyrene’s son by the god, Aristaios, not only inherited his father’s gifts of prophecy and healing, but was the inventor of many country crafts, such as bee-keeping, olive-growing, cheese-making, shepherding and the preparation of wool. He married Autonoe, a daughter of Kadmos, and as such came to play a part in the saga of Thebes. After his death he was worshipped as a rustic god.
A third son of Apollo was the seer Iamos, whose mother was Euadne, the daughter of Poseidon and a Spartan nymph, Pitane. Euadne had been brought up by Aipytos, a king of Arcadia, and when she became pregnant by Apollo she tried to conceal it from her guardian. In due course he discovered the painful truth and hurried off to the Delphic Oracle for advice. There he was told that Apollo was the father of the child, who was destined to become a great prophet and to found an unfailing line of seers. Easy in his mind at last, Aipytos returned home, only to find that in his absence Euadne had given birth to her son out in the countryside. With a heavy heart, not daring to take him home, she had left him there. Now, five days later, she and her guardian went to look for the infant, not expecting to find him still living. But Apollo had sent two snakes to feed his son with honey, and Euadne found her baby alive and well, lying in a bed of violets, so she named him Iamos, ‘child of the violets’.
Despite fathering these and other mortal children, Apollo was often unlucky in love. He pursued the nymph Daphne, for instance, only to have her turned into a laurel tree as he reached out to grasp her (p. 520). He gave Kassandra prophetic powers in return for her favours, but she changed her mind and rejected him; so he left her with the power to foretell the future truly, but condemned her to the fate of never being believed. He loved the beautiful Marpessa, daughter of Euenos, a son of Ares, but she reacted much as had Koronis. At first the god bided his time while many other suitors wooed the girl, all of whom Euenos challenged to a chariot race, promising to bestow his daughter on anyone who could beat him. He always won, then cut off the heads of his vanquished opponents and nailed them to the walls of his house – until one final suitor came: Idas, who was known as the son of Aphareus, king of Messenia, but was really a son of Poseidon. His chariot was drawn by winged horses given him by his divine father, and in it he carried off Marpessa. Euenos pursued them, but he had no chance of catching them with his merely mortal horses, and when at last he came to the river Lykormas in Aitolia, he gave up in despair. He killed his horses and drowned himself in the river, which was renamed the Euenos after him.
Idas took his new wife back to Messenia, and it was now that Apollo made his move. He too came to Messenia and seized Marpessa by force. At once Idas drew his bow against the god, ready to fight for his bride, but Zeus came between them and told Marpessa to choose which suitor she preferred. She chose Idas, preferring the mortal to the god, for the same reason as had Koronis. Apollo had to withdraw, and in due course Marpessa bore Idas a daughter whom they named Alkyone after the kingfisher (a bird believed to have a plaintive cry), in memory of Marpessa’s sorrowful weeping when Apollo seized her. Alkyone would marry Meleagros, the great hero who killed the Kalydonian Boar.
Apollo also loved two youths, Hyakinthos and Kyparissos, both of whom returned his love; but both died tragically. Hyakinthos was loved not only by Apollo, but also by the bard Thamyris (the first instance of homosexual love among mortals, according to Apollodorus) and by the god of the West Wind, Zephyros. The lad himself loved only Apollo, and one day, when boy and god were throwing a discus to one another, Zephyros, out of jealous spite, deflected the discus with a gust of his wind just as Apollo made his throw. The discus swerved, hitting Hyakinthos on the head and killing him at once. Apollo tried to revive him, but failed, so in his grief he gave his lover a kind of immortality: he transformed the blood shed from his mortal wound into a dark blue flower, the ‘hyacinth’, a form of iris. The flower was born again every spring, and on its petals were marks that read ‘AI AI’ (‘Alas! Alas!’), forever recalling Apollo’s cry of grief at his lover’s death.
Kyparissos was another young favourite of Apollo, and like Hyakinthos he returned the god’s love. He also dearly loved a tame stag, a beautiful beast that was sacred to the nymphs. He would lead it to water or to fresh grass, and hang wreaths of flowers on its antlers, and even ride upon its back, guiding it with scarlet reins. But one summer’s day, as the stag was sleeping, stretched out in the shade of some trees, he threw his hunting-spear and accidentally killed it. Filled with grief, he longed only to join it in death, and Apollo could not comfort him, try as he might. As Kyparissos wasted away in sorrow, he begged as a last gift from the gods that he might go on mourning forever, so Apollo transformed him into a cypress tree, the eternal symbol of grief.
Let us end as we began with Apollo as god of music. Naturally he resented any slur on his supreme musical abilities and was quick to exact vengeance if these were challenged. Ancient myth tells of two famous contests in which Apollo’s musicianship was tested. One was between Apollo and the goat-god Pan, where Apollo was judged the winner by all but Midas, on whom the god took a memorable revenge (p. 534). The other contest took place between Apollo and the Phrygian satyr Marsyas.
Originally the aulos, or double pipe, had been invented by Athene, in imitation of the wild lamentations voiced by the two surviving Gorgons after the death of their sister Medusa. But the goddess threw her new instrument away in disgust when she found that it distorted her face unbecomingly as she played. The satyr Marsyas found the pipes and was enchanted by their music, becoming in time so proficient a performer that he challenged Apollo to a musical contest. God and satyr agreed that the Muses should be the judges and that the victor might do whatever he liked with the loser.
The contest began, with Marsyas playing his pipes and Apollo his lyre, and both performing equally well. Finally Apollo turned his lyre upside down and played on it with great skill, then challenged the satyr to do the same with his pipes – which of course was impossible – so Apollo was adjudged the winner. The price that he exacted from Marsyas was an agonizing death: he suspended him from a tall pine tree and flayed him alive. The tears of all the woodland creatures who loved the satyr became the river Marsyas, a tributary of the Maeander and the clearest river in Phrygia.
Herodotus (7.26) tells us that the shaggy hide of Marsyas could still be seen in his day exhibited at Kelainai, near the source of the river Marsyas. According to Pausanias (2.7.9), the satyr’s discarded pipes reputedly floated away down the river and eventually reappeared far away in the river Asopos, where a shepherd found them and dedicated them to Apollo in a temple at Sikyon, though by Pausanias’s time they had been burnt in a temple fire.
The shorter Homeric Hymn (21) to Apollo pays tribute to Apollo the musician: Phoibos, about you even the swan sings high and clear, as he wings his way to alight on the banks of the swirling river Peneios; and about you the sweet-tongued minstrel with his clear-voiced lyre always sings both first and last. So hail to you, lord! I seek your favour with my song.
Artemis
I sing about Artemis of the golden shafts, chaste virgin of the clamorous hunt, who with her arrows strikes down the stag, own sister to Apollo of the golden sword. Over the shadowy hills and windy heights she draws her golden bow, delighting in the chase as she sends forth her grievous shafts. The peaks of the high mountains tremble, the dark wood echoes terribly with the outcry of beasts, and the earth and fish-filled sea shudder …
Thus begins one of the two Homeric Hymns (27) to Artemis (Diana), twin sister of Apollo. Brother and sister are together the two great archer deities and both embody a contradiction: just as Apollo is the god of healing, and yet his unerring arrows can bring plague and death, so Artemis is mistress of all wild animals (Potnia Theron), and yet is also the goddess of hunting, who kills the very creatures she has nurtured. Although a virgin herself, as Artemis Locheia (she of the childbed) she presides over childbirth along with Eileithyia; and as Artemis Kourotrophos (nurse of the young) she is the protector of all young living things, human and animal alike. One of her most famous places of cult was at Brauron, in Attica, where little girls in yellow dresses served her as arktoi, bears, and performed a bear dance at her annual festival, the Brauronia.
She was sometimes identified with Eileithyia because of their mutual concern with childbirth; and just as Apollo was known as Phoibos, the Shining One, and came to be identified with the Sun-god Helios, so Artemis was conflated with Selene, the Moon-goddess, and both were known as Phoibe. Artemis was also sometimes identified with that other goddess of the night, her cousin Hekate, who was associated with crossroads (great centres of ghostly and magical activities), and who ranged the night with a retinue of ghosts, the shades of the restless dead, and with a pack of terrifying hell-hounds. Indeed, Hekate was sometimes known as Artemis of the crossroads.
The dominant conception of Artemis in both literature and art is as virgin huntress. Ancient art typically portrays her as a young and beautiful woman, carrying bow and arrows, sometimes dressed in long robes and sometimes in a short tunic reaching to her knees. Often she wears animal skins or is accompanied by animals, especially by deer. The great temple of Artemis at Ephesos, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, contained a rather different image: a celebrated statue covered with what are assumed to be multiple breasts, perhaps to mark the goddess’s connection with childbirth.
Artemis was believed to roam the mountains and forests with a band of attendant nymphs, all of them delighting in the hunt and sworn to a determined chastity like their leader. If this were violated, Artemis was merciless. When Kallisto was raped by Zeus, for instance (p. 517), one of the versions of her tragic fate, quite apart from being transformed into a bear, was death at Artemis’ hands. But the archer-goddess was also seen as an agent of death in a more general sense, with or without the need for punishment. Any unexpected death of a woman could be attributed to the sudden and unerring arrows of Artemis. In Homer’s Odyssey, when Odysseus meets his mother’s shade in Hades and thus learns for the first time of her death, he asks her how she died. ‘Was it a long illness?’ he inquires. ‘Or did Artemis the archer-goddess visit you and bring you down with her gentle shafts?’ (11.172–3).
There was always a close and mutually protective relationship between Artemis and Apollo and their mother. When the giant Tityos tried to rape Leto, brother and sister together killed him, and because of his crime he was punished in Hades with eternal torment from vultures tearing at his liver. They also shot the sons and daughters of Niobe, the wife of King Amphion of Thebes, when she boasted that she had far more children than Leto, with Apollo killing the boys and Artemis the girls.
Leto would often go hunting with her daughter and, as we have seen (p. 44), their companion was at one time the giant hunter Orion. It was they who asked for him to be immortalized in the stars after he was stung to death by a massive scorpion. But there are many intricate variations of Orion’s story, and in one of these Artemis herself killed him accidentally. It was said that she enjoyed Orion’s company so much that she was thinking of marrying him (the only hint in myth of Artemis, the eternal virgin, being moved by sexual passion). This made Apollo deeply jealous. He pointed to an object far out to sea and challenged her to hit it with an arrow, which she did – and realized that the object had been Orion’s head only when his corpse floated to shore.
Two other famous giants, challengers to the gods, were killed by either Artemis or Apollo. Otos and Ephialtes were twins, and were called the Aloadai after their nominal father Aloeus, but were really the sons of Poseidon. Their mother was Iphimedeia, who had been so much in love with the sea-god that she would often go down to the sea and cup the seawater in her hands, pouring it over her body. One day Poseidon came and made love to her, and in due course she bore twin sons.
The boys grew at an alarming rate. Iphimedeia herself tells their story in Homer’s Odyssey, when Odysseus meets her shade in Hades (11.305–20). Her sons were the largest and handsomest of all mortals after the giant hunter Orion, and by the time they were nine years old they were over 50 feet (16 metres) tall.
They threatened to do battle with the gods themselves, and to pile Mount Ossa on Mount Olympos, and Mount Pelion on Ossa, until they reached the very heavens. ‘And they would have done it too,’ says Homer, ‘if they had grown to manhood.’ But before then Apollo killed them: ‘before the down bloomed below their temples, or covered their chins with the blossom of youth’.
In Apollodorus’ version (1.7.4) it was Artemis who saved the gods. Here the giants actually succeeded in piling Ossa on Olympos and Pelion on Ossa. When they reached the home of the gods, they put the war-god Ares out of action by tying him up, then pursued two of the goddesses, Otos going after Artemis, and Ephialtes after Hera. But Artemis killed them by a trick. She turned herself into a deer and ran between them, and when they each flung a spear at the beast, they missed, but struck each other and died.
Perhaps the most famous myth associated with Artemis is that of her confrontation with the mortal Aktaion, son of Aristaios and Autonoe, and grandson of Kadmos, king of Thebes. Aktaion was a skilled huntsman whose tragic fate was to be turned into a deer by Artemis, and then to be torn to pieces by his own hounds.
Various motives are given for this agonizing death. The earliest, attested in a lost poem by Stesichorus, was that Zeus was angry with Aktaion for wooing his aunt Semele, the very woman whom the god himself desired. Others said that Aktaion had enraged Artemis by boasting that he was a better hunter than she was, or even by thinking himself good enough to marry her. But in the most familiar version of his fate, Artemis was angry because he came on her suddenly while he was out hunting on Mount Kithairon, and saw her bathing naked with her attendant nymphs in a shady spring.
The affronted goddess splashed him with water and transformed him into a stag, though his mind remained as it was and he was all too aware of the hideous fate in store for him. He fled into the forest, where his own hounds gave tongue and hunted him, while he ran before them in terror. At last they dragged him down.
They tore at him while his hunting friends cheered them on, all the while calling for Aktaion himself to join in the sport. Only when the life was at last torn out of him was the anger of Artemis appeased. It was said that his hounds, finding that their beloved master had disappeared, sought for him everywhere, howling in grief, until the Centaur Cheiron took pity on them and made a statue of Aktaion, so lifelike that they were comforted.
This death of Aktaion is a popular subject in ancient art from the sixth century BC, with Artemis almost always shown in attendance. In earlier pictures Aktaion sometimes wears a deerskin, and the first vases on which he sprouts antlers are after the middle of the fifth century. Artemis surprised bathing appears first in Pompeian paintings.
The myth has inspired many poets too, right down to the present day. It was given an ironic twist by the Poet Laureate, Andrew Motion, writing on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, in September 1997. Here it is not Aktaion but Artemis/Diana herself who is the victim, with Diana hunted to death by the media hounds who in life had idolized her (Mythology):
"Earth’s axle creaks; the year jolts on; the trees
begin to slip their brittle leaves, their flakes of rust;
and darkness takes the edge of daylight, not
because it wants to – never that. Because it must.
And you? Your life was not your own to keep
or lose. Beside the river, swerving underground,
your future tracked you, snapping at your heels:
Diana, breathless, hunted by your own quick hounds."
Athene
Athene (Minerva) is the virgin goddess of war and of handicrafts. As war-goddess, she presides over the disciplined and rational use of war to protect the community, in contrast to the war-god Ares, who delights in the bloodlust and slaughter and frenzy of battle. In ancient art Athene is regularly depicted fully armed, with crested helmet, spear and aigis (a goatskin cape, worn as a kind of breastplate and often fringed with snakes).A grim image of the Gorgon, instiller of fear, is often set on her aigis or on her shield, and her special bird, the owl, seated on her shoulder.
As the goddess of handicrafts, she not only presided over women’s work of spinning and weaving, but was also the patroness of craftsmen such as carpenters, metalworkers and potters. In this capacity, she was often said to be involved in the skilled projects of mortals. She supervised the building of the famous ship Argo, for instance, and the construction of the Wooden Horse that enabled the Greeks to take Troy.
Suitably for a warrior goddess, she was born not in the usual fashion but from the male head of Zeus, after which she naturally became his favourite daughter. When Zeus’s first wife, Metis, was pregnant with their first child, Zeus learnt that she was destined to bear, as second child, a son who would displace him as king of gods and men. He solved the matter by swallowing his pregnant wife (p. 45). When the time came for the first child to be born, Hephaistos split Zeus’s head with an axe and out sprang Athene, fully armed and shouting her war cry that resounded throughout heaven and earth.
Thus Athene was in a sense a reincarnation of metis, intelligence, and she was always seen as the personification of wisdom. She was known as glaukopis Athene, the meaning of which is uncertain, but ‘grey-eyed’, or ‘flashing-eyed’, or ‘owl-faced’ are possibilities. There are likewise various explanations of her epithet ‘Pallas’ Athene, the most likely being that it means ‘Girl’ or ‘Maiden’, or was derived from pallein, to brandish, for Athene was often depicted brandishing a spear.
On the whole Athene had benevolent relationships with mortals. Like all the gods, she could punish wrongs if need be, though usually not too vindictively. She blinded Teiresias, for instance, when he saw her bathing naked, but she gave him various benefits in reparation, including the art of prophecy (p. 289). She punished Arachne for presuming to challenge her to a weaving contest, then took pity on her and changed her into a spider, who would go on weaving for ever (p. 516). But she is more usually seen as supporting and encouraging her mortal favourites. Throughout Homer’s Odyssey she is the constant friend and adviser of Odysseus, who is intelligent, resourceful and valiant like herself; and in art she watches over the mighty Herakles in hundreds of depictions of his various dangerous exploits.
Athene was the protectress of many cities throughout the Greek world, but she had a very special and intimate relationship with Athens, which is reflected in her name (though the precise relationship between the names of place and goddess is much debated). She vied with Poseidon to be patron of the city during the reign of Kekrops, both demonstrating their divine powers – Poseidon by creating a well of seawater on the Acropolis, Athene by planting an olive tree. Athene’s gift was judged the greater benefit and thereafter she was Athens’ special patron. She was even, in a sense, the ancestor of the Athenians themselves through their fifth king, Erichthonios, who was born when Hephaistos tried to ravish her against her will. In the struggle, his semen fell on her thigh and she wiped it off with a scrap of wool, which she threw to the ground. Where it fell, the earth conceived and subsequently brought forth Erichthonius. Athene became his foster-mother.
Between 447 and 438 BC the Athenians built in her honour the crowning monument of Athens on their Acropolis: the Parthenon (parthenos, virgin). Inside was the huge and famous statue of Athene, in ivory and gold, created by the great artist and sculptor Pheidias – which of course has been lost, but we know a great deal about its appearance from Pausanias’s description (1.24.5–7) and from small Roman copies. Pheidias also made a colossal bronze statue of Athene that stood on the Acropolis (also lost). We know also from Pausanias (1.28.2) that the crest of Athene’s helmet and the tip of her spear could be seen by homecoming Athenians from the sea, the bronze catching the sunlight, as soon as Cape Sounion was passed.
Ares
Ares (Mars), son of Zeus and Hera, is the god of war. In contrast to Athene, who oversees the controlled use of war to safeguard the community, Ares stands for the brutal aspects of warfare – battle-frenzy, bloodlust, cruelty, slaughter – all relished for their own sakes. His warlike sons by Aphrodite, Phobos (‘Terror’) and Deimos (‘Fear’), often accompany him on the battlefield, as sometimes does Eris, goddess of strife, and the war-goddess Enyo (Bellona to the Romans), who is little more than a personification of bloody war. Not surprisingly, Ares is generally disliked, both on earth and on Olympos (except by Aphrodite). In the Iliad, when Ares is wounded by Diomedes on the battlefield at Troy, he flees bellowing up to Olympos to complain to Zeus (5.888–98):
And cloud-gathering Zeus glared at him and said: ‘Do not sit beside me and whine, you two-faced liar. To me you are the most hateful of all the gods on Olympos, for always strife is dear to your heart, and wars, and battles … Yet I cannot long endure you to suffer pain, for you are my own child, and it was to me that your mother bore you. But were you sprung from any other god, you pestilence, I would long ago have thrown you out of heaven.’
Ares never married, though he had several children by his lover Aphrodite (p. 71), and was the father of many mortal children, who were often savage and belligerent like Ares himself. These include the brigand Kyknos, who cut off the heads of passing strangers and used the skulls to build a temple to his father; Diomedes, king of the Thracian Bistones, who fed his horses on human flesh; Oinomaos, king of Elis, who forced the suitors of his daughter Hippodameia to run a lethal chariot race with him, then nailed their heads to the walls of his palace; and the Thracian king Tereus, who raped and cut out the tongue of the Athenian princess Philomela – cruel acts savagely avenged by her sister Prokne.
Ares was relatively little worshipped by the Greeks. In ancient art he is depicted fully armed, but he is not a popular figure and is usually a mere bystander in scenes with the other gods. The only myth illustrated with any frequency in which he is a key figure is his son Kyknos’s fight with Herakles.
Ares’ Roman equivalent, Mars, was in contrast a very important god, second only to the sovereign deity Jupiter. There was also a uniquely Roman story of Mars’ birth. Juno was annoyed with Jupiter for producing Minerva from his own head without the need of a female, so she appealed for help to Flora, the goddess of flowers and spring. Flora had originally been a nymph named Chloris, who was loved by the West Wind, Zephyros. At his kiss she was transformed into Flora, and breathed out flowers that spread over all the earth, just as in spring the gentle West Wind warms the cold earth into blossoming. Flora now gave Juno a herb at whose touch she at once became pregnant, and Mars was the result.
Another uniquely Roman myth, related by Ovid, is the comic tale of Mars’ association with the aged goddess Anna Perenna. He persuaded her to act as his go-between in his pursuit of the virgin goddess Minerva, though Anna knew that Minerva would never succumb to him. Despite this, she gave Mars every encouragement to think the opposite, and one night she herself took Minerva’s place, heavily veiled, in an assignation with the god. Mars came eagerly to claim her favours, only to discover beneath the veil the old crone Anna.
Mars was the father of twin sons, Romulus and Remus, by Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin, one of whom, Romulus, would grow up to be the founder of Rome (p. 498).
Hephaistos
Hephaistos (Vulcan) is the god of fire and metalworking, the divine blacksmith. He is sometimes said to be the son of Zeus and Hera, sometimes of Hera alone because she was angry with Zeus for bringing Athene to birth from his own head; but all sources agree that the smith-god was lame. Hera was so ashamed of his deformity that she flung him out of Olympos. He fell into the great river of Ocean surrounding the earth and was saved by the Nereid Thetis and the Oceanid Eurynome. For nine years he lived in a cave by the ocean, practising his smith’s craft and fashioning all manner of fine jewellery for his two benefactresses.
Year by year his skill grew, and at last he used his expertise to take revenge on his cruel mother. He sent her a beautiful golden throne, which she accepted with delight, but attached to it were invisible fetters, and these held her fast as soon as she sat down. The other gods begged Hephaistos to come back to Olympos and release her, but he stubbornly refused to do so. Eventually Dionysos solved the problem: he plied Hephaistos with wine, then brought the intoxicated god up to heaven on the back of a mule (a favourite scene in ancient art, with Hephaistos riding on an ithyphallic mule and followed by satyrs and nymphs). Only then did he give in and set his mother free.
Dionysos brings Hephaistos to Hera, bound fast to her throne. He must have forgiven Hera, for he tried to defend her when Zeus hung her from Olympos, with anvils tied to her feet, to punish her for persecuting his beloved son Herakles. Zeus was so angry at this interference that he grabbed Hephaistos by the feet and flung him a second time from Olympos. This time he fell through the air for a whole day before landing at sunset, half dead, on the island of Lemnos – a fall which Milton immortalizes in Paradise Lost (1.742–6):
"... from Morn
To Noon he fell, from Noon to dewy Eve,
A Summer’s day; and with the setting Sun
Dropt from the Zenith like a falling Star,
On Lemnos th’ Aegaean Ile ..."
Here the inhabitants tended him, and ever afterwards he had a special affection for the island, which in historical times was his chief cult-centre in the Greek world. In due course he rejoined the immortals on Olympos, apparently bearing no resentment against Zeus.
In Hesiod’s Theogony, Hephaistos is married to Aglaia, the youngest of the Graces, and in Homer’s Iliad simply to Charis (Grace personified), but he is more usually said to be married (unlikely as it might seem) to Aphrodite, the goddess of love herself. In the Odyssey, Homer recounts the famous episode when he takes his revenge on his unfaithful wife and her lover Ares by trapping them beneath a magical, invisible net and calling the other gods to witness their humiliation (p. 71). He had no children by any of these wives and very few by mortal women. The most significant of these is probably Periphetes, who was weak on his legs like his father, and was known as the ‘Club-bearer’ because he always beat travellers to death with a club of bronze. Theseus killed him.
As the divine master-craftsman, Hephaistos created masterpieces of unparalleled beauty and intricacy. He built the palaces of the gods themselves in gold and bronze, and his many other works of art on Olympos included golden robots that attended him in his forge, and tripods with golden wheels that moved at his command. He made splendid arms and armour, both for the gods and for favourite mortals, and he fashioned the great golden cup of the Sun, which carried Helios around the streams of Ocean from west to east every night. He also created beautiful, ornate jewellery and other artefacts, usually for the gods, but occasionally these came into the hands of mortals and played a significant part in their lives (like the robe and necklace of Harmonia in the Theban saga; see Chapter 9). In ancient art the smith-god often wields an axe or a pair of blacksmith’s tongs, and sometimes wears a tunic and a brimless workman’s hat.
As god of fire, Hephaistos was thought to have not only a workshop on Olympos, but forges elsewhere in the world, wherever the earth gave forth emissions of smoke and fire, and especially beneath the volcanic Mount Etna in Sicily. Here, it was said, the one-eyed giants, the Cyclopes, worked under his direction, and the mountain resounded with the noise of their hammering, and quaked and smoked from the ceaseless fiery activity. (Though the monster Typhon and the giant Enkelados are also, as we have seen, credited with causing Etna’s volcanic tumult.)
Three episodes from the Iliad vividly illustrate the three main, and very different, aspects of Hephaistos. In Book 18, Homer depicts the master-craftsman, with his massive, hairy torso and spindly legs, at work in his forge. He sweats and puffs over his anvil as he makes marvellous armour for Achilles, most notably a famous, fantastically ornate shield, in gold and silver, bronze and tin, decorated with a multitude of intricate pictures. Lame and ugly Hephaistos may be, but he can still create objects of magical beauty. Yet his deformity also makes him something of a figure of fun, and in Book 1 the comical aspect of the crippled smith-god comes to the fore, as he tries to make peace after a quarrel between Zeus and Hera. He bustles clumsily about, pouring wine, so that all the gods laugh at him and harmony is restored.
Finally, Book 21 presents the powerful and fearsome god of fire, when Hephaistos comes, on Hera’s command, down to the plain of Troy to dry up the floods of the river Skamandros (also called Xanthos), which is angrily trying to drown Achilles (21.361–7):
"The river blazed with fire, his lovely streams seething.
And as a cauldron boils, set on a fierce flame,
melting the fat of a well-fed hog, bubbling up
on every side as dry sticks burn beneath,
so Xanthos’ lovely streams were burned with fire,
and the water boiled, and would not flow along,
but was stopped by the mighty blast of Hephaistos."
Hermes
Hermes (Mercury) is the gods’ herald and messenger. Being such a mobile divinity, he is naturally the god who protects all travellers. He is also the god of boundaries, and his statues, known as hermai, ‘herms’, were set up wherever boundaries needed to be marked: at the roadside, at crossroads, and in particular at the thresholds of houses. These herms were four-sided stone pillars, topped with a bearded head of the god and with an erect phallus projecting from the front, and were believed to bring good fortune.
As god of travellers, Hermes acts as guide and escort to both men and gods; and as god of boundaries, he helps men to travel over the most formidable boundary of all, that between the land of the living and the land of the dead. In this role, known as Hermes psychopompos, ‘conductor of souls’, he leads the souls of the dead down to the Underworld.
Crafty and full of trickery himself, Hermes is suitably the god of merchants and traders, tricksters and thieves. He is the god of flocks and herds, and is especially concerned with their fertility (in art he is often shown carrying a ram over his shoulders). As the patron of athletic contests, his statues were often erected in gymnasia.
In general he was benevolent to mortals and brought them luck and prosperity: a lucky find, a windfall, was known as a hermaion or a hermaia dosis, a ‘gift of Hermes’. Not surprisingly, he is a very popular figure in ancient art, where he is easily recognized by his trademark symbol, the herald’s staff (caduceus or kerykeion), and by his wide-brimmed traveller’s hat (a petasos, sometimes winged) and winged boots or sandals.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and the Pleiad Maia, daughter of the Titan Atlas. He was born at dawning in a deep and shadowy cave on Mount Kyllene in Arcadia. The delightful Homeric Hymn (4) in his honour recounts the first deeds of this god who is ‘wily and charming, a thief, a cattle-rustler, a bringer of dreams, a spy by night, a watcher at the door …’ (13–15). As soon as he is born, Hermes is ready for mischief. At noon he springs from his cradle, and finding a tortoise outside the cave he creates the first lyre, using the shell for a sounding board and sheep gut for the seven strings. For a time he is content to make marvellous music with his new instrument, but all the while trickery is brewing in his heart.
At evening he sets off to steal the cattle belonging to Apollo. He finds the god’s herds pasturing in the mountains of Pieria and carries off fifty cows, driving them backwards so as to confuse the trail and masking his own footprints with sandals made of brushwood. An old man, tilling a nearby vineyard, sees what he is doing, but Hermes sternly forbids him ever to speak of it.
Near the river Alpheios the little god pauses to build a fire. Here he sacrifices two of the cows, dividing the meat into twelve portions for the gods but eating none himself, much as he would like to. Then leaving the rest of the cattle behind, he returns to his mother’s cave and creeps back into his cradle, pulling his swaddling clothes over him and looking the very picture of baby innocence. Maia is not deceived. ‘Where have you come from at this hour of the night, all covered in shamelessness?’ she cries, ‘... Your father got you to be a great worry to mortal men and to the immortal gods’ (155–61).
In the morning, Apollo sets off to hunt for his stolen cows. The old man who witnessed the theft tells the god that he has seen a child driving them off, and Apollo, with his powers of prophecy, now knows who the culprit is. He goes angrily to Maia’s cave (235–42):
And when the little son of Zeus and Maia saw Apollo in a rage about his cattle, he snuggled down inside his fragrant baby-clothes; and just as the deep embers of tree-stumps are covered over with wood ash, so Hermes cuddled down when he saw the Far-shooter. He drew his head and hands and feet together into a little space, like a newborn baby seeking the sweetness of sleep, even though in fact he was wide awake.
After searching the cave and finding nothing, Apollo demands to know where his cattle are, even threatening to cast Hermes down to Hades and make him the ruler of all the babies there. Hermes innocently denies all knowledge of the theft. ‘Do I look like a cattle-rustler, a strong man?’ he asks. ‘This is no task for me; rather I care about other things. I care about having my sleep, and my mother’s milk, and shawls round my shoulders, and warm baths.’ He even denies all knowledge of what cows are, claiming to know of them only by hearsay.
Apollo is amused, but not convinced. He takes the infant up to Olympos and tells the whole story to Zeus. Hermes resolutely carries on lying, but despite his protestations of innocence, Zeus orders him to show Apollo where he has hidden the cattle. So he does (this is, after all, Zeus speaking); then to avert Apollo’s anger he takes up his lyre and plays so enchantingly that the god wants the instrument for himself. They make a bargain: Apollo will keep the lyre and Hermes will become divine keeper of herds. The two are ever afterwards firm friends.
The old man who saw Hermes stealing Apollo’s cattle is called Battos in later accounts, which develop his part in the story. According to Ovid (Metamorphoses 2.679–707), Hermes bribes the old man with a cow to say nothing of what he has seen, and he replies that a stone will more readily tell of the theft than he. A little while later the god returns in disguise and tests Battos, offering him a cow and a bull if he can tell him anything about the stolen cattle. Tempted by the double reward, the old man tells all he knows, so Hermes transforms his betrayer, very appropriately, into a stone.
Dionysos
Dionysos (Liber, Bacchus) is the god of wine and intoxication, of ritual madness and ecstatic liberation from everyday identity. Homer calls him a ‘joy for mortals’ (Iliad 14.325) and Hesiod ‘he of many delights’ (Theogony 941). He introduced wine to men, says Euripides, ‘which, when they drink their fill, banishes the sufferings of wretched mortals, and brings forgetfulness of each day’s troubles in sleep. There is no other cure for sorrow …’ (Bakchai 278–83). Dionysos is a nature god, representing the sap of life, the coursing of the blood through the veins, the throbbing excitement and mystery of sex and life and growth.
He is also the god of the theatre and impersonation, the theatrical mask being the symbol of this transformation of identity. At the dramatic festivals of Athens, the image of Dionysos, as god of the theatre, was carried in to watch the performances put on in his honour. And in two very different plays from the late fifth century BC, the god himself takes part, becoming a richly comic character in Aristophanes’ Frogs, and in Euripides’ Bakchai the sinister, smiling god who orchestrates Pentheus’ destruction (p. 473).
Dionysos had a revelling train of ecstatic followers: maenads, satyrs and silens, all celebrating the god’s rites with wine and music, song and dance, and sometimes, in their ecstasy, tearing animals to pieces (sparagmos) and eating the flesh raw (omophagia). These bacchanals are an ever-popular theme in ancient art. Maenads (‘frenzied women’) – also known as Bakchai (Bacchae) or Bacchants (‘women of Bacchus’) – wear fawnskins and wreaths of ivy, oak or bryony, and sometimes girdle themselves with snakes. They carry the thyrsos, the magical wand of the god, made from a fennel rod with a bunch of ivy leaves attached to the tip, and sometimes torches or branches of oak or fir.
From ancient literature we get a dramatic picture of maenads in miraculous action, both peaceful and violent, from Euripides’ tragedy Bakchai. Up on Mount Kithaeron, they handle snakes and suckle wild animals. At a touch they draw springs of water and wine and milk from rocks and earth, while from their thyrsoi flow streams of sweet honey. But when enraged, they are inspired with tremendous physical strength: they uproot trees, and tear cattle and even humans to pieces. Their thyrsoi become dangerous weapons against an enemy, while their own bodies are impervious to iron and fire.
Satyrs and silens (their names were often used interchangeably) were also natural followers of Dionysos, for they were male creatures of the wild with a voracious appetite for sex and wine, and a love of music and revelry. The Romans identified them with their native woodland spirits, the fauns. They were primarily human in form but with some animal features. Three labelled silens appear on the famous (and early, c.570 BC) François Krater, each with horses’ ears, tails and hind-legs. Their activities give a neat visual summary of their character: one carries a wineskin, one plays the double pipes, and one embraces a nymph.
In later art satyrs more commonly have human legs, and are usually depicted with rough hair, snub noses, horses’ ears and tails, and perpetual proud erections; while later still, in Hellenistic art, they often have goatish features. They are shown in typical satyrs’ pursuits – accompanying Dionysos, making music, dancing, helping with the vintage, chasing nymphs or maenads, copulating with animals, and masturbating.
The satyrs’ leader was Silenos, old and wise and the most drunken of them all, who was said to have been the young Dionysos’ tutor. ‘A drunken old man,’ says Ovid (Metamorphoses 4.26–7) ‘who supports his tottering limbs with a staff, or clings unsteadily to his hump-backed donkey.’ Yet intoxication inspired Silenos’s wine-hazed mind with special knowledge and powers of prophecy. The Phrygian king Midas once sought to share his wisdom, so he caught the old man by lacing with wine the fountain at which he drank. When Silenos fell asleep after drinking, the king’s servants seized him and took him to their master. The satyr’s philosophy was pessimistic: he told Midas that the best thing for man is not to be born at all, and the second best thing is to die as soon as possible.
Dionysos himself is depicted most frequently of all the gods in ancient art. He is easily identified by his attributes of drinking vessel and ivy wreath, and by his special emblem, the thyrsos. He often appears as god of wine, accompanied by his ecstatic followers and sometimes by panthers or snakes. Until about 430 BC, he is shown as a bearded, ivy-wreathed, mature man, wearing long robes and often a deerskin or panther-skin. He grows younger with time, and after 430 he is usually youthful, beardless and naked or semi-naked. Sometimes he is accompanied by Ariadne, the mortal bride whom he carried to Olympos and made immortal after Theseus abandoned her (p. 251).
He was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman, Semele, daughter of Kadmos, king of Thebes. When Hera found out that Semele was pregnant, she came down to earth to destroy her rival. Disguised as Semele’s old nurse, she sowed doubt in the girl’s mind as to whether her lover really was Zeus, and suggested that she settle the question by asking him to appear to her in all his godlike glory, just as he had appeared to Hera herself when he wooed her.
So the credulous Semele did just this: she persuaded Zeus to promise her any favour she chose, then made her request. He had no choice but to carry out his promise. He came to her as the great storm-god, lord of the lightning, and she was burnt to ashes. Yet even as she died, he snatched the unborn child from her womb and stitched him into a gash cut in his own thigh. There Dionysos grew until he could be born full-term. It was said that Semele’s tomb at Thebes continued to smoulder for years; but everything ended well for her after all, for she was later made immortal – fetched by Dionysos from Hades and taken to Olympos, where she was renamed Thyone.
When the infant was born, Zeus sent him to be brought up by Semele’s sister Ino and her husband Athamas. They dressed him as a girl to hide him from the ever-jealous Hera, but eventually she learnt the truth. She punished Ino and Athamas by driving them mad, and in their madness they killed their own children.
Next Zeus evaded Hera by transforming Dionysos into a young goat, then took him to be brought up by the nymphs of Mount Nysa (variously located). Yet even when he had grown to manhood, Hera was still hostile to him. Driven mad by her, he wandered the world, through Egypt and Syria to Phrygia, and here at last he was cured by Rheia/Kybele. He still travelled on, even as far as India, before returning to Greece, spreading his worship on his journeys and dispensing to mortals knowledge of the vine and its pleasures.
One such mortal to receive a vine from the god was the Attic farmer Ikarios (p. 232). Another was said to be Oineus, the king of Kalydon, perhaps because of his name’s similarity to that of wine (oinos). Some said that the boon came to him through his herdsman, Staphylos (‘Bunch of Grapes’), when he noticed that one of his goats had taken to coming home from pasture later than the rest and in a very frisky mood. When Staphylos followed the goat, he found it enjoying grapes from a vine, so he carried some of this new fruit to his master, and Oineus squeezed the juice from the grapes and made the first wine. At one stage Dionysos was kidnapped by pirates, a story recounted in one of the Homeric Hymns (7) to the god. The pirates saw him as their ship came in to land (2–6):
He appeared on a headland by the shore of the barren sea, looking like a young man in the first flower of his youth. Beautiful were the dark locks of hair that waved about him, and on his sturdy shoulders he wore a purple cloak.
The pirates took him for a person of royal birth who would fetch a large ransom, so they seized him and carried him off in their ship, even though the bonds with which they tied him fell away of their own accord. The helmsman alone recognized that this was no ordinary mortal and tried to warn his comrades, but they paid him no heed.
In mid-ocean, strange miracles began to occur: wine ran streaming through the ship, and vines and ivy grew from the mast and sail. A ravening bear appeared on the deck, and the god became a dreadful, roaring lion and sprang upon the pirate captain. The terrified sailors leapt overboard and were transformed into dolphins (which is why dolphins, having once been human themselves, have ever since been friendly to men). The only one to be spared was the helmsman who had spoken out on the god’s behalf. He became an ardent follower of Dionysos.
Several of Dionysos’ myths tell how mortals persecuted him, refusing to recognize his divinity or to accept his rites. Usually they came to a bad, and often bloody, end. A good example is the myth of Lykourgos, king of the Edonians in Thrace. His story first occurs in Homer (Iliad 6.130–40), who says that he pursued Dionysos and his nurses down from the sacred mountain of Nysa, striking at them with an ox-goad. He terrified them so much that the god had to dive into the sea and take refuge with the sea-goddess Thetis. Lykourgos was struck blind by Zeus in punishment and soon afterwards died, hated by all the gods.
His fate becomes bloodier as time goes by. According to Apollodorus (3.5.1), Dionysos punished Lykourgos by driving him mad, and in his madness he struck his son Dryas dead with an axe, believing that he was pruning a grapevine. After cutting off his son’s extremities, he regained his sanity, but soon afterwards the land became barren, and his people learnt that it would bear fruit again only if they put him to death. He was torn to pieces by wild horses. Hyginus has yet another version (Fabula 132) in which Lykourgos became drunk and tried to rape his own mother, then killed his wife and son, and finally cut off his own foot, believing it to be a vine. Dionysos then had him devoured by panthers.
Women too were punished for refusing to worship the god. Minyas, the king of Orchomenos, had three daughters, Leukippe, Alkathoe (or Alkithoe) and Arsippe (or Arsinoe). All three of them ignored the festival of Dionysos: being industrious girls, they preferred to stay indoors all day, weaving at their looms, instead of going out and joining in the revels with the other women. In one version of the story (Antoninus Liberalis 10), Dionysos himself appeared to them in the form of a young girl and urged them not to neglect his rites. When they spurned his advice, he turned himself into a bull, a lion and a leopard, while milk and nectar flowed from their looms. The terrified sisters drew lots to see who should sacrifice to the god, and when Leukippe’s lot came out, they seized her son Hippasos and tore him to pieces, then went outdoors to join the revelling maenads. Finally they were turned into a bat and two kinds of owl; or, in another version, a crow, a bat and an owl.
In Ovid’s version (Metamorphoses 4.1–415), they worked at their looms all day, contentedly telling stories to one another. Then suddenly at dusk their looms sprouted grapevines and their threads vine-tendrils, the rooms glowed with fire, and the house was filled with smoke and the sound of wild beasts howling. The three girls fled in terror to remote corners of the house, and there all three were turned into bats.
The most famous of all these opposition myths is that of Pentheus, the young king of Thebes, who was torn to pieces by his own mother (his fate will be the subject of a later chapter, p. 473). Dionysos was indeed a god with a dual nature: as Euripides puts it (Bakchai 861), he was a god ‘most terrible and most gentle to mortals’.
Hades and the Underworld
When the three sons of Kronos divided the universe among themselves, Zeus and Poseidon ruled in the upper world, while Hades took as his domain the misty darkness of the Underworld – which itself is often called simply Hades. Here he presided over the souls of the dead. He was certainly a grim and sinister god, but he was in no sense evil or Satanic, just as his kingdom was very different from the Christian Hell. His wife, and the queen of the Underworld, was his niece, Demeter’s daughter Persephone (Proserpina), whom he had once abducted (p. 62).
Hades had other names: he was called euphemistically Plouton, ‘Rich One’, because of all the riches that come from the earth. The Romans too adopted this title, Latinizing it to Pluto, and also calling him Dis, a contraction of dives (‘rich’), and Orcus. He was given a wide variety of epithets, such as Stugeros, ‘Hateful’, Polydektes and Polydegmon, ‘Receiver of Many’, Polyxeinos, ‘Host to Many’, Klumenos, ‘Renowned’, Eubouleus, ‘Good Counsellor’; and he was known too as Zeus Katachthonios, ‘Zeus of the Underworld’, this last emphasizing his absolute power over his realm. He had almost no cult, since his jurisdiction was confined to the souls of the dead and he had no interest in the living. Unsurprisingly, he is seldom the subject of ancient art. When he is, he often carries a sceptre or a key as a symbol of his authority, or a cornucopia in his nature of Plouton.
His subterranean realm was a chill and sunless place, watered by five rivers: the Styx (Hateful River), the Acheron (River of Woe), the Kokytos (River of Lamentation), the Phlegethon (River of Flame), and the Lethe (River of Forgetfulness). In Paradise Lost, Milton neatly sums up the attributes of all five (2.577–86):
"Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly hate,
Sad Acheron of sorrow, black and deep;
Cocytus, nam’d of lamentation loud
Heard on the rueful stream; fierce Phlegethon
Whose waves of torrent fire inflame with rage.
Far off from these a slow and silent stream,
Lethe, the River of Oblivion, rolls
Her wat’ry labyrinth, whereof who drinks
Forthwith his former state and being forgets,
Forgets both joy and grief, pleasure and pain."
Of the five rivers, Lethe was seen as comparatively kindly, since the ability to forget the pains of human existence can be a blessing – as Byron emphasizes in his Don Juan. (The reference here to the sea-goddess Thetis concerns her attempt to make her son Achilles immortal by immersing him in the river Styx.)
"And if I laugh at any mortal thing,
’Tis that I may not weep; and if I weep
’Tis that our nature cannot always bring
Itself to apathy, for we must steep
Our hearts first in the depths of Lethe’s spring
Ere what we least wish to behold will sleep:
Thetis baptized her mortal son in Styx;
A mortal mother would on Lethe fix."
Homer puts the entrance to Hades in the far west, beyond the river of Ocean, but the ancients believed that there were also entrances within the known world: through a cave at Tainaron (still to be seen at the tip of the middle promontory of the southern Peloponnese), through a bottomless lake at Lerna in the Argolid, and through a cave by Lake Avernus, near Naples.
At the boundaries of the Underworld lay the rivers Styx and Acheron, and to their banks came the souls of the dead, escorted by Hermes. If they had received proper burial, the aged ferryman Charon carried them across the waters in his boat, charging a fee of one obol for his trouble. (It was customary to bury the dead with this coin left in their mouths as Charon’s payment.)
Charon himself was naturally seen as something of a forbidding figure. He appears in Aristophanes’ comedy The Frogs (180–270), where he is portrayed as brusque, churlish and abusive as he conveys Dionysos across Acheron to Hades.
The god has to do his own rowing while Charon steers. Our first extant picture of Charon in ancient art is on a black-figure vase of about 500 BC, and after that he is frequently depicted on white-ground funerary lekythoi, dressed as a labourer and standing with a punt-pole at the stern of his boat. He becomes more squalid as time goes by. Virgil sees him as distinctly unsavoury (Aeneid 298–301): ‘a dreaded ferryman, frightful and foul, his chin covered with unkempt hoary hair, his fierce eyes lit with fire, and a filthy cloak hanging from a knot on his shoulder’.
The Styx itself was thought to have its source within the mortal world, then to drop from a sheer, high cliff before flowing through the darkness beneath the earth. At Nonakris in Arcadia there is a real-life Styx, so named at least as early as the sixth century BC, with waters cold from the snows that feed it and just such a waterfall. Pausanias (8.17.6–18.6) records that its waters were instantly fatal, and that they broke or corroded all materials except the hooves of horses. There was a rumour that Alexander the Great met his death by water from the Styx, sent to him in a mule’s hoof. Conversely, there is a modern superstition that anyone who drinks from the Arcadian Styx on the right day in the year will become immortal.
Once across the Styx, the dead soul entered Hades by its gates, which were guarded by a fearsome watchdog, Kerberos, offspring of the monsters Typhon and Echidna. His task was to ensure that those who entered the Underworld never left. ‘Wagging his tail and drooping his ears he fawns on those who enter,’ says Hesiod (Theogony 770–3), ‘though he never lets them go back out again, but lies in wait and devours anyone he catches trying to pass out of the gates.’ Hesiod describes him as ‘unmanageable, unspeakable Kerberos who eats raw flesh, the hound of Hades with a voice of bronze, fifty-headed, bold and strong’ (310–12), though he was more usually said to have only three heads. (In art, for practical reasons, he is usually shown with two or three heads, and occasionally just one.) His tail was a fierce serpent and hissing snakes sprouted from his body.
The myths tell of a few privileged mortals who visited Hades while still living, yet managed to escape safely back to earth again. Herakles did so, when as one of his twelve Labours he captured Kerberos himself and took him up into the world to show to Eurystheus – after which he returned the dog to his post. Odysseus travelled to the edge of the Underworld, to seek advice from the shade of the seer Teiresias about his journey home to Ithaca, and there met many souls of the dead. Aeneas travelled down to meet the shade of his father Anchises, who told him of the future greatness of Rome. Orpheus descended, hoping (and failing) to bring his dead wife Eurydice back to life. These all made the journey safely back again to the light of the sun. But when Theseus and Peirithoos went down to the Underworld with the intention of abducting Persephone, Hades trapped them in seats from which they had no power to move. Theseus was eventually rescued by Herakles, on his quest for Kerberos, but Peirithoos stayed fixed firmly in his seat for ever.
Within the Underworld the dead souls lived a shadowy existence on the Plain of Asphodel. Homer’s Achilles best sums up the quality of this afterlife when his shade meets Odysseus at the edge of Hades. Odysseus tries to console Achilles for his death by speaking of the authority he must now hold among the dead. Achilles replies unforgettably (Odyssey 11.489–91): ‘I would rather be alive and toiling as serf to another man, one with no land and nothing much to live on, than be a king over all the perished dead.’
According to later writers, Hades had a distinct area known as Elysion (or Elysium, or the Elysian Fields) which became the dwelling place for a few privileged mortals after death. Here through the favour of the gods they lived for ever in blissful ease. Certainly Homer mentions Elysion as the place where favoured souls went when dead, naming it as the future home of Menelaos, who, as the son-in-law of Zeus, would win a blessed eternal life there (Odyssey 4.561–8), though he locates Elysion, not in Hades, but near the stream of Ocean at the western bounds of the earth. Ruled over by the wise Rhadamanthys, it never sees snow, or harsh winter, or rain.
Hesiod, in his Works and Days (167–73), calls this happy land the Islands of the Blest, ruled over by Kronos (so here he gives the Titan a happier end than he does in his Theogony, where, as we have seen, Kronos and the other Titans were thrown into Tartaros). Hesiod naturally emphasizes – hardworking farmer that he was – a life of ease on these Islands, where the earth gives forth harvest three times a year of its own accord. Pindar too (Olympian Ode 2.56–83, fr. 129) speaks of a world without labour and without tears, a land of eternal sunlight, of golden fruit and flowers, of meadows red with roses, where favoured mortals have unending leisure to enjoy peaceful occupations of their choice. Pausanias (3.19.11–13) even locates the abode of the blessed within the known world, on Leuke, the White Island, near the mouth of the Danube. Here a certain Leonymos saw the shades of heroes living in eternal bliss, and among them Achilles – now no longer, we assume, mourning his lost life on earth.
It was later commonly thought that this Elysion was a particular part of Hades, isolated from the area where the shades of ordinary mortals lived their dreary life after death. This is certainly the case in Virgil, where in the Aeneid (Book 6) Aeneas meets his father Anchises in the Underworld. For Virgil, Elysion is the place where the good soul rests before being reborn.
There was in Hades, as well as a special place for blessed souls, an area where wrongdoers were punished for their sins committed on earth. This in due course came to be known as Tartaros (rather different from Hesiod’s Tartaros, which was one of the primal entities along with Gaia and Eros). Four famous sinners in particular are said to have suffered eternal punishment, three of whom were seen by Odysseus on his visit to the Underworld described in the Odyssey (Book 11). The giant Tityos was shot dead by Apollo and Artemis for trying to rape their mother Leto, and Odysseus saw him tied to the ground in Hades, sprawled over two acres, while two vultures squatted on either side of him, tearing at his liver. The tissues always re-grew, so his torment never ended.
Next Odysseus saw Tantalos, once a wealthy Lydian king and a favourite of the gods, even invited to dine at their divine tables; but he abused their trust, offending them so much that they punished him for eternity in Hades. Homer does not specify his crime, but various offences are ascribed to him in later sources. Either he invited the gods to a feast at which he served them the flesh of his own son Pelops, cut up and stewed, with the presumptuous intention of testing their omniscience (p. 427), or he divulged the gods’ secrets to men, or he stole some of their nectar and ambrosia to share with his mortal friends. His punishment caused him eternal ‘tantalizing’ torment, as described by Odysseus (11.582–92):
"I saw Tantalos, suffering pains hard to bear,
standing in a lake with water up to his chin.
Thirsty he was, but unable to quench his thirst,
for every time the old man stooped, longing to drink,
the water drained away and vanished, and black earth
showed at his feet where the god dried it up.
Above his head, fruit cascaded from towering trees,
pears and pomegranates and shining apples,
and sweet figs and ripened olives, but whenever
the old man reached for them with his hands, a wind
tossed them away towards the shadowing clouds."
Odysseus also witnessed the punishment of Sisyphos, once the king of Corinth and a great trickster, famous for his cunning and ingenuity (and sometimes said to have been the father of the wily Odysseus himself). Sisyphos was altogether a rather endearing rogue. His first crime was to tell tales on Zeus, who in his usual amorous fashion had carried off Aigina, the beautiful daughter of the river-god Asopos. Sisyphos had seen the abduction, and he promised to tell the girl’s frantic father all he knew, in return for a spring of fresh water for his high citadel at Corinth. The river-god at once granted him the spring of Peirene, so Sisyphos told him exactly what had happened. Intent on saving his daughter, Asopos furiously pursued Zeus, but he was finally driven back to his own river by the great god’s thunderbolts. (In historical times, coal could be found in the river Asopos and was thought to be the result of Zeus’s attack.)
Zeus carried Aigina off to the island of Oinone, where in the fullness of time she bore him a son, Aiakos, who, when he grew up, renamed the island after his mother. In time he grew lonely, so Zeus gave his son companions by turning all the Aiginetan ants (murmekes) into humans, who were then known as Myrmidons.
Despite this happy outcome for Zeus, he still took revenge on his informer by sending Thanatos (Death) to take Sisyphos off to the Underworld – but the great trickster was a match even for Death. He outwitted Thanatos and tied him up, so that for a while no mortal at all could die. The gods were displeased by this state of affairs, so they sent the war-god Ares to deal with the situation. Ares released Thanatos and handed Sisyphos over to him to meet his death, but the rascal still had a trick up his sleeve, since before dying he had instructed his wife Merope on no account to perform the customary funeral rites. This so affronted Hades that he sent Sisyphos back to earth to reproach his wife and make the proper arrangements. Sisyphos, of course, did no such thing, but stayed happily on earth and lived to a ripe old age.
When he finally reached the Underworld at the end of his natural life, he was set an eternal punishment of perpetually rolling a great boulder up a hill, only to have it roll down again just as he neared the top (a ‘sisyphean task’ indeed, demanding endless and frustrating labour). Odysseus describes it (11.593–600): ‘I saw Sisyphos, suffering pains hard to bear.
"With both arms embracing a gigantic stone,
pushing with hands and feet, he would thrust
the stone to the top of a hill, but when it was about
to go over the top, a mighty force turned it round,
and the pitiless stone rolled back to the ground below.
He strained once more to push it, and the sweat
ran from his limbs, and dust rose from his head"
From a mortal’s point of view, a man who could cheat Death deserves an accolade rather than punishment, so perhaps it is happier to view Sisyphos’ efforts as does Albert Camus, in his Le mythe de Sisyphe: Essai sur l’absurde. Camus takes Sisyphos’ strivings as a symbol for the absurdity of this life and the futility of man’s endeavours, but he asserts that happiness can still be found in the recognition of our condition and in the struggle to rise above it. He ends:
I leave Sisyphos at the foot of the mountain. One always finds one’s burden again. But Sisyphos teaches the higher fidelity that negates the gods and raises rocks. He too concludes that all is well … The struggle towards the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart. One must imagine Sisyphos happy.
A fourth great sinner was Ixion, a Thessalian king and ruler of the Lapiths. He was the Greek Cain, the first mortal to shed a kinsman’s blood. He married Dia, the daughter of Deioneus (or Eioneus), promising his father-in-law bride-gifts and inviting him to collect them. When Deioneus arrived, he fell into a pit of fire prepared by Ixion and perished. Yet evil though this murder was, it was not the crime for which Ixion was eternally punished.
No mortal was willing to purify Ixion of so terrible a deed, but at last Zeus took pity on him and took him up to Olympos, where he not only purified him, but cured him of the madness that had beset him after the murder. Ixion repaid his benefactor by trying to rape Hera. When she told Zeus what had happened, he fashioned a cloud (nephele) in her likeness and put it in Ixion’s bed to test the truth of her story. Ixion ravished the cloud, which in due course produced a child, Kentauros. He in turn copulated with wild Magnesian mares on the slopes of Mount Pelion, and from these were born the Centaurs, part man and part horse, a race of savage and brutal beasts.
Zeus punished Ixion by binding him to the four spokes of an ever-turning wheel of fire. In early times this wheel was thought to revolve around the world in the sight of men, to teach them the dangers of ingratitude to benefactors, but later Ixion and his wheel came to be located in Tartaros. Sometimes it was said that the wheel was covered with snakes.
Some dead souls were thought to suffer in Hades endless and futile tasks in the same way as Sisyphos. The daughters of Danaos, who in life had murdered their husbands, forever tried to draw water into leaking vessels that had always to be refilled. And Oknos endured an eternal task that reiterated his sufferings on earth. In life he had been an industrious man with an extravagant wife who, work as hard as Oknos might, at once spent everything that he earned. After death he was forced continually to plait a rope, while by him stood a she-ass, eating the rope as fast as he could plait it.
But this is all relatively mild, compared to the fearsome place that Tartaros was to become late on in the ancient world, where the wicked in general were subjected to eternal torment for their crimes committed on earth. Three adjudicators passed judgement on dead souls: Aiakos, who also kept the keys of the kingdom, and the brothers Rhadamanthys and Minos. In life Minos and Rhadamanthys had been members of the Cretan royal house, celebrated for their wisdom and justice as lawgivers, while Aiakos (the son born to Aigina: see above) had always been a paragon of righteousness. Now they condemned all evildoers to Tartaros, and here the Furies punished sinners after death, torturing and terrifying the shades of the dead, as in Virgil’s powerful account in Aeneid Book 6. This would greatly influence the Christian conception of the torments of Hell.
MINOR GODS
A few minor gods should be mentioned who, important though they are, still do not rank with the great Olympians.
Pan
Pan is a rural god, a god of shepherds and flocks, part man and part goat, and identified by the Romans with the rustic gods Faunus and Silvanus. In ancient art he is at first depicted as all goat, but later he becomes mainly human, but with a goat’s horns, ears and legs. His Homeric Hymn (19) celebrates his birth in Arcadia, the wild and mountainous central region of the Peloponnese. His father was the god Hermes, who had fallen in love with the (unnamed) daughter of an Arcadian hero, Dryops, and for her sake spent his time tending her father’s sheep. He won her love, and she bore him a most unusual son (35–47):
... who from his birth was a wonder to behold, with the feet of a goat and two horns – a noisy, laughing child. When the nurse saw his uncouth face and bearded chin she was afraid, and springing up she fled and left the boy. But Hermes the luck-bringer took him in his arms, and immeasurable joy filled his heart. He went quickly to the abodes of the immortal gods, carrying the child wrapped in the warm pelts of mountain hares, and setting him down beside Zeus and the rest of the gods, he showed them his son. Then all the immortals were filled with rejoicing, especially Dionysos, and they called the child Pan (‘All’) because he delighted all their hearts.
Pan is a god of the wild countryside, a lustful and sportive nature-spirit. He spends his days wandering the lonely reaches of mountain and forest, sleeping in the heat of the noontide (when it is thought very dangerous to disturb him), and playing soft and haunting melodies on the pipes of reed which he himself invented. This came about, according to Ovid (Metamorphoses 1.689–712), when he was pursuing a nymph who had taken his fancy – another favourite occupation of his. Syrinx was her name. But she rejected Pan’s advances, preferring to live the life of a virgin huntress, and she fled from him until she reached the river Ladon. Here she could go no further. Desperately she prayed to the river-nymphs to save her, and they did so, for just as Pan thought he had at last caught hold of her, he found that instead of the nymph’s body he was clutching a bunch of marsh reeds. He sighed with disappointment, and as the air blew through the reeds it produced a sad and haunting sound. Enchanted by so sweet a music, he cut the reeds into different lengths and joined them into the first set of Pan-pipes, giving them the Greek name of syrinx after his lost love.
Pan pursued other nymphs – indeed, no nymph was safe from him. (Nor, on occasion, were shepherd boys, nor even the animals from their flocks.) One such nymph was Pitys, who, like Syrinx, fled from his advances. She was turned into a pine tree (pitys), and this is why Pan often liked to decorate his brow with wreathes of pine leaves. In another version, Pitys looked with favour on Pan, but he had a rival for her love: Boreas, the wintry god of the North Wind. Boreas was so jealous when Pitys chose Pan that he blew her to her death from the top of a cliff. The Earth where her body landed took pity on her and turned her into a pine tree, and she can be heard weeping whenever Boreas blows through her branches.
In the fifth century BC, Pan’s worship spread from Arcadia into Attica and Boiotia, and from there to the rest of the Greek world. Having such a lustful nature, he was thought to be responsible for the fecundity of flocks and herds, and of the animal domain in general: when a need was felt to encourage reproduction, his statue was beaten with squills to stimulate his powers of fertility.
He showed particular favour to the Athenians, appearing to the runner Philippides (sometimes wrongly named Pheidippides) on a mountain track in Arcadia, while he was running from Athens to Sparta to ask for help against the Persians on the eve of the battle of Marathon (490 BC). Pan asked why the Athenians did not worship him, since he had often helped them in the past and would do so again in the future. As it turned out, the Spartans could give no aid, but nevertheless (clearly with Pan’s help) the Athenians won a great victory at Marathon. They dedicated to Pan the cave-shrine still to be seen on the slopes of the Acropolis, and instituted sacrifices and torch races in his honour. Menander’s comedy The Bad-tempered Man shows us a religious celebration in honour of Pan, held at the god’s cave at Phyle in Attica. A sheep is sacrificed, a meal is enjoyed, and the happy and rowdy celebrations last all night, with drinking and dancing in the presence of the god.
A legend recorded by Plutarch (Moralia 419b–d) tells of the ‘death of Pan’. During the reign of Tiberius (ad 14–37), the passengers of a ship sailing along the western coast of Greece heard a mysterious voice apparently calling to the pilot, an Egyptian named Thamuz, that ‘Great Pan (Pan megas) is dead’. This was most likely a misinterpretation of a ritual cry, when the title pammegas (‘all-great’) was applied to the Syrian god Tammuz, identified with Adonis, during the annual celebration of his death and resurrection. But Christians took the statement to relate to the death and resurrection of Christ, and to signify the death of the pagan gods and the end of the pagan era. It was said that at this very same time the responses of the pagan oracles ceased forever.
Despite this, Pan lives on, for his unseen presence is the cause of ‘panic’ (panikos), the overwhelming and irrational terror that can strike violently and unexpectedly, particularly in the silence (or the inexplicable sounds) of the lonely, rocky places where he dwells.
The Dioskouroi
The Dioskouroi (‘Boys of Zeus’) were the ‘Heavenly Twins’ Kastor and Polydeukes (Latinized to the Dioscuri and Castor and Pollux). They were the sons of Leda by Zeus and her husband Tyndareos, the king of Sparta: Kastor was the mortal son of Tyndareos and Polydeukes the immortal son of Zeus.
The twins were inseparable from the time of their birth. Kastor was renowned for his skill at horsemanship (though both brothers rode swift white horses), while Polydeukes excelled at boxing. They lived the normal life of any great hero of their generation, together voyaging with the Argonauts to win the Golden Fleece and taking part with Meleagros in the Kalydonian Boarhunt. But they were killed before they could fight in the Trojan War, or succeed to the Spartan throne.
The trouble began when they quarrelled with their cousins Idas and Lynkeus, the sons of Aphareus, king of Messenia, a dispute that finally resulted in death for three out of the four. Sometimes the quarrel was said to be over their cousins Hilaeira and Phoibe, the daughters of Leukippos (brother to both Tyndareos and Aphareus), and often called simply the Leukippides. Idas and Lynkeus were betrothed to these girls, but the Dioskouroi seized them, perhaps on their very wedding day, and carried them off to Sparta. Hilaeira married Kastor, and Phoibe married Polydeukes, and both girls gave birth to sons.
The other reason for the quarrel was a disagreement over cattle. This seems to have been the older version, for Proclus reports that the Kypria told of the Dioskouroi stealing their cousins’ cattle. Pindar, who recounts the results of the final, fatal argument (Nemean Ode 10), simply says, ‘Idas was in some way angered about his cattle’, but in Apollodorus we find a delightfully detailed story (3.11.2). The four cousins together stole a great herd of cattle from Arcadia and it was given to Idas to divide the spoils. He cut a cow into four, and said that half the spoils would go to the one who ate his share of the meat first, and the rest to him who ate his share second. Before they knew where they were, Idas, who was a prodigious trencher-man, had himself eaten both his own and his brother’s share. He then drove the whole herd of cattle off to their home in Messenia. In revenge for what seemed to them very unfair dealing, the Dioskouroi marched against Messenia and recovered the stolen cattle, taking many more besides. They then lay in wait for Idas and Lynkeus.
For an account of the fatal battle we go back to Pindar. Lynkeus, who was gifted with superhuman vision so acute that he could see even through solid objects, ran to the top of Mount Taygetos and from there, scanning the countryside below, he saw Kastor and Polydeukes hiding in a hollow oak tree. So he and Idas were able to take the Dioskouroi by surprise, Idas mortally wounding Kastor by stabbing through the tree with his spear. Polydeukes, being immortal, was safe from injury, and now he leapt out and pursued the brothers to the tomb of their father Aphareus. Here they turned to fight, and in desperation uprooted the tombstone and flung it at their pursuer. Undeterred, Polydeukes killed Lynkeus with his spear while Zeus hurled a thunderbolt at Idas.
With both cousins dead, Polydeukes returned to Kastor, who was now on the point of death. Weeping, Polydeukes begged Zeus to allow him to die with his brother, so the god offered him a choice. Either Kastor went to Hades while he himself took his rightful place among the gods on Olympos, or Kastor could share his immortality, so long as the brothers spent alternate days in the Underworld with the shades, and the other days on Olympos with the gods. With no hesitation Polydeukes chose the latter fate, and Zeus immortalized the brothers in the stars as the constellation Gemini, the Twins, to commemorate their mutual devotion.
Kastor and Polydeukes were important gods, particularly in their native Sparta, and they were the special patrons of sailors, to whom they appeared as St Elmo’s fire, the luminous phenomenon sometimes seen playing round the masts of ships in a storm. It was said that one ball of fire was a bad omen, while two balls of fire were a sure sign of the Dioskouroi’s protective presence. The lyric poet Alcaeus of Lesbos hymns this aspect of the twin gods:
"You who journey the wide earth
and all the sea on swift horses,
easily delivering men
from freezing death;
you leap to the peaks of their sturdy ships
and shine out brilliant from afar,
bringing light to the black vessel
in the grievous night ..."
They were important also at Rome. When in 499 (or 496) BC, the Romans were fighting a great battle against the Latins at Lake Regillus, near Tusculum, the twins appeared on their white horses and fought on the Roman side. As soon as the battle was over, they appeared again in the Forum at Rome, their horses bathed in sweat, and announced the resounding Roman victory. Having watered their horses at a spring sacred to the water-nymph Juturna, they vanished. The nearby temple of Castor, three columns of which still stand, was erected to commemorate this event.
Priapos
Priapos (Priapus) is a god of sexuality and fertility characterized by a gigantic, erect phallus. He was a latecomer to the Greek pantheon, originating in the Hellespont region and said to be the son of Aphrodite and Dionysos. His mother was so ashamed of his physical deformity that she abandoned him after his birth, leaving him in the mountains, where he was found and brought up by shepherds. Because of this he was always a rustic god, a guardian of vineyards, orchards, gardens, bees and herds. His cult spread rapidly during the third century BC and he was later well known through most of the Roman Empire.
His sacrificial animal was usually the donkey, though various reasons are given for this choice. Perhaps he had an argument with a donkey as to which of them had the biggest male appendage, and Priapos lost. Or a donkey had interfered in his amorous pursuits, at a time when he was creeping up to rape the sleeping nymph Lotis (or, in another version, Vesta: p. 68). He was all ready to have his way with her, when at the crucial moment she was woken by a bray from Silenos’s ass. Seeing what fate was almost upon her, she fled in panic, and Priapos was exposed to general ridicule.
Or perhaps donkeys were sacrificed to Priapos because they were believed to be the most lustful of all animals, and so were deemed the most suitable offering for a god with such an exceptional sexual endowment.
Kybele
Kybele (Cybele) was the great mother-goddess from Phrygia, often called simply ‘the Great Mother’, with powers over fertility and the whole of wild nature, symbolized by her attendant lions. In art they flank the throne on which she sits, or they draw her chariot, and Kybele herself wears a turreted crown to show that she protects her people in war. She was thought to be accompanied by revelling maenads and male attendants, the Korybantes, who produced her celebratory music with the clash of cymbals and the sound of pipes and drums.
The Greeks often identified her with Rheia, the wife of Kronos and mother of the gods, or with Demeter. Kybele’s chief sanctuary was in the mountains at Pessinus in Phrygia, where her sacred image in stone was believed to have fallen from heaven. From here her cult spread over the whole of the Greek world, and later into the Roman world as well when (traditionally in 204 BC) the Romans brought the goddess’s sacred stone to Rome and built her a temple on the Palatine Hill.
Kybele was associated in myth and cult with a young male consort, Attis, whose story centred on his self-castration. It has a number of variants, such as this Phrygian version. While Zeus was asleep, his semen fell upon the ground, and from it was born Kybele (also known as Agdistis), with both male and female sex organs. The gods castrated this hermaphrodite creation, and from the severed male genitals there sprang an almond tree. One day an almond fell into the lap of the nymph Nana, daughter of the river-god Sangarios, and when it moved into her womb she conceived Attis. When her son was born she abandoned him, but a he-goat miraculously suckled the baby, who grew into a beautiful youth with whom Kybele, now all female, fell passionately in love. She was so possessive and jealous that to prevent him marrying another she drove him mad, and in his frenzy he castrated himself, and died.
In Kybele’s orgiastic cult her priests too were eunuchs, who in a state of religious ecstasy castrated themselves in ritual commemoration of Attis’s self-mutilation and death.
Adonis
Adonis was a god of vegetation and fertility, introduced into Greece from further east, and his festival, the Adonia, was widely celebrated every year, his cult being particularly popular with women. He was born of an incestuous union between Kinyras, the king of Cyprus, and his daughter Myrrha (p. 528), and he was so beautiful that he was loved by Aphrodite (p. 542). He died young, gored by a wild boar while out hunting.
His followers mourned his death by planting at midsummer ‘gardens of Adonis’, seeds set in shallow soil that sprang up quickly and as quickly withered, symbolizing the brief life of the god. This mourning for his death was followed by rejoicing at his resurrection as a god. Byblos in Phoenicia was especially sacred to him, and it was said that the nearby river of Adonis was stained with blood each year at the time of his death.
Janus
Let us end this catalogue of gods with the uniquely Roman god Janus. His temple stood in the Forum at Rome and had double gates, kept closed in rare times of peace and left open in war. He was the god of gateways and doorways (ianuae) and presided over all beginnings, which the Romans believed were crucial to the success of any undertaking. He (appropriately) gave his name to the first month of our year, January. Suitably too for such a god, he had two faces, one looking forwards and one backwards, just as every door looks two ways.
This useful attribute helped him in his pursuit of Cranae, a nymph who was dedicated to virginity. She would trick any amorous pursuer by sending him ahead of her into a shady cave, promising to follow him and enjoy the delights of love, but instead of doing so, she would run and hide in the forest. Janus managed to outwit her, for when she sent him off to a cave, he spotted her with the eyes in the back of his head, just as she was hiding behind a rock. He caught her before she could escape and had his way with her. She became the goddess Carna, and Janus appointed her the protector of door hinges, and gave her a branch of flowering hawthorn that would keep out all evil spirits. She especially protected infants in their cradles from vampires, thought to attack them by night and suck their blood.
There were many other Roman divinities, each with powers over specific aspects of life, but they seem merely personified functions, with no individual character. To list them all would be tedious, and also superfluous, for, important though they may have been to the Romans, they played no part in the stories of mythology that will fill these pages.
By Jenny March in "The Penguin Book of Classical Myths", Penguin Random House, UK, 2009. Digitized, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.