In 55 BC, Julius Caesar’s Roman army invaded England, landed in Kent, and marched northwest until it reached the broad Thames River at what is now Southwark. There were a few tribesmen living on the opposite bank, but no major settlement. However, by the time of the second Roman invasion 88 years later, a small port and mercantile community had been established here. The Romans bridged the river and built their administrative headquarters on the north bank, calling it Londinium – a version of its old Celtic name.
London as Capital
London was soon the largest city in England and, by the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066, it was the obvious choice for national capital. Settlement slowly spread beyond the original walled city, which was virtually wiped out by the Great Fire of 1666. The post-Fire rebuilding formed the basis of the area we know today as the City, but by the 18th century, London enveloped the settlements around it. These included the royal city of Westminster, which had long been London’s religious and political center. The explosive growth of commerce and industry during the 18th and 19th centuries made London the biggest and wealthiest city in the world, creating a prosperous middle class who built the fine houses that still grace parts of the capital. The prospect of riches also lured millions of the dispossessed from the countryside and from abroad. They crowded into unsanitary dwellings, many just east of the City, where docks provided employment. By the end of the 19th century, 4.5 million people lived in inner London and another 4 million in its immediate vicinity. Bombing in World War II devastated many central areas and led to substantial rebuilding in the second half of the 20th century, when the docks and other Victorian industries disappeared.
Roman London
When the Romans invaded Britain in the 1st century AD, they already controlled vast areas of the Mediterranean, but fierce opposition from local tribes (such as Queen Boudicca’s Iceni) made Britain difficult to control. The Romans persevered, however, and had consolidated their power by the end of the century. Londinium, with its port, developed into a capital city; by the 3rd century, there were some 50,000 people living here. But, as the Roman Empire crumbled in the 5th century, the garrison pulled out, leaving the city to the Saxons.
Where to See Roman London
Most traces of the Roman occupation are in the City and Southwark. The Museum of London and the British Museum have extensive collections of Roman finds. There’s a Roman pavement in the crypt of All Hallows by the Tower, and in the 1990s an amphitheater was found below the Guildhall. The foundations of the Temple of Mithras are on view near the site on Queen Victoria Street.
Medieval London
The historic division between London’s centers of commerce (the City) and government (Westminster) started in the mid-11th century when Edward the Confessor established his court and sited his abbey at Westminster. Meanwhile, in the City, tradesmen set up their own institutions and guilds, and London appointed its first mayor. Disease was rife and the population never rose much above its Roman peak of 50,000. The Black Death (1348) reduced the population by half.
Elizabethan London
In the 16th century, the monarchy was stronger than ever before. The Tudors established peace throughout England, allowing art and commerce to flourish. This renaissance reached its zenith under Elizabeth I as explorers opened up the New World, and English theater, the nation’s most lasting contribution to world culture, was born.
Restoration London
Civil War had broken out in 1642 when the mercantile class demanded that some of the monarch’s power be passed to Parliament. The subsequent Commonwealth was dominated by Puritans under Oliver Cromwell. The Puritans outlawed simple pleasures, such as dancing and theater, so it was no wonder that the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II in 1660 was greeted with rejoicing and the release of pent-up creative energies. The period was, how ever, also marked with two major tragedies: the Plague (1665) and the Great Fire (1666).
Georgian London
The foundation of the Bank of England in 1694 spurred the growth of London, and by the time George I came to the throne in 1714, it had become an important financial and commercial center. Aristocrats with West End estates began laying out elegant squares and terraces to house newly rich merchants. Architects such as the Adam brothers, John Soane, and John Nash developed stylish medium-scale housing. They drew inspiration from the great European capitals, as did English painters, sculptors, composers, and craftsmen.
Victorian London
Much of London today is Victorian. Until the early 19th century, the capital had been confined to the original Roman city, plus Westminster and Mayfair to the west, ringed by fields and villages such as Brompton, Islington, and Battersea. From the 1820s, these green spaces quickly filled with row houses for the growing numbers attracted to London by industrialization. Rapid expansion brought challenges to the city. The first cholera epidemic broke out in 1832, and in 1858 came the Great Stink, when the smell from the Thames River was so bad that Parliament had to go into recess. But Joseph Bazalgette’s sewer system (1875), involving banking both sides of the Thames, eased the problem.
London Between the World Wars
The society that emerged from World War I grasped eagerly at the innovations of early 20th-century London – the automobile, the telephone, mass transit. Movie theaters brought transatlantic culture, especially jazz and swing music. Victorian social restraints were discarded as people flocked to dance in restaurants, clubs, and dance halls. Many left the crowded inner city for new suburban subdivisions. Then came the 1930s global Depression, whose effects had barely worn off when World War II began.
Postwar London
Much of London was flattened by World War II bombs. Afterward, the chance for imaginative rebuilding was missed – some badly designed postwar developments are already being razed. But by the 1960s, London was such a dynamic world leader in fashion and popular music that Time magazine dubbed it “swinging London.” Skyscrapers sprang up, but some stayed empty as 1980s boom gave way to 1990s recession.
Kings and Queens in London
London has been the royal capital of England since 1066, when William the Conqueror began a tradition of holding coronations in Westminster Abbey. Since then, successive kings and queens have left their mark on London, and many of the places described in this book have royal associations: Henry VIII hunted at Richmond, Charles I was executed on Whitehall, and the young Queen Victoria rode on Queensway. Royalty is also celebrated in many of London’s traditional ceremonies.
In "Eyewitness Travel- London", editor Tom Fraser, main contributor Michael Leapman, DK Publishing, USA, 2015, excerpts pp.19-36. Digitized, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.